  The Linux Serial HOWTO
  David S.Lawyer   dave@lafn.org original by Greg Hankins
  v2.05, 1 January 2000

  This document describes serial port features other than those which
  should be covered by Modem-HOWTO, PPP-HOWTO, Serial-Programming-HOWTO,
  or Text-Terminal-HOWTO.  It lists info on multiport serial cards.  It
  contains technical info about the serial port itself in more detail
  than found in the above HOWTOs and should be best for troubleshooting
  when the problem is the serial port itself.  If you are dealing with a
  Modem, PPP (used for Internet access on a phone line), or a Text-Ter-
  minal, those HOWTOs should be consulted first.
  ______________________________________________________________________

  Table of Contents



















































  1. Introduction

     1.1 Copyright, Disclaimer, & Credits
        1.1.1 Copyright
        1.1.2 Disclaimer
        1.1.3 Credits
     1.2 Release Notes
     1.3 New Versions of this Serial-HOWTO
     1.4 Related HOWTO's re the Serial Port
     1.5 Feedback
     1.6 What is a Serial Port?

  2. How the Hardware Transfers Bytes

     2.1 Transmitting
     2.2 Receiving
     2.3 The Large Serial Buffers

  3. Serial Port Basics

     3.1 What is a Serial Port ?
        3.1.1 Intro to Serial
        3.1.2 Pins and Wires
        3.1.3 RS-232 or EIA-232, etc.
     3.2 IO Address & IRQ
     3.3 Names: ttyS0, ttyS1, etc.
     3.4 Interrupts
     3.5 Data Flow (Speeds)
     3.6 Flow Control
        3.6.1 Example of Flow Control
        3.6.2 Symptoms of No Flow Control
        3.6.3 Hardware vs. Software Flow Control
     3.7 Data Flow Path; Buffers
     3.8 Complex Flow Control Example
     3.9 Serial Software: Device Driver Module

  4. Is the Serial Port Obsolete?

     4.1 Introduction
     4.2 EIA-232 Cable Is Low Speed & Short Distance
     4.3 Inefficient Interface to the Computer

  5. Multiport Serial Boards/Cards/Adapters

     5.1 Intro to Multiport Serial
     5.2 Making "devices" in the /dev directory
     5.3 Standard PC Serial Boards
     5.4 Dumb Multiport Serial Boards (with 8250/16450/16550A UART's)
     5.5 Intelligent Multiport Serial Boards

  6. Configuring the Serial Port

     6.1 PCI Bus Not Yet Supported
     6.2 Configuring Overview
     6.3 Common mistakes made re low-level configuring
     6.4 I/O Address & IRQ: Boot-time messages
     6.5 What is the current IO address and IRQ of my Serial Port ?
        6.5.1 What does the device driver think?
        6.5.2 What is set in my serial port hardware ?
        6.5.3 What is set in my PnP serial port hardware ?
     6.6 Choosing Serial IRQs
        6.6.1 IRQ 0 is not an IRQ
        6.6.2 Interrupt sharing and Kernels 2.2+
        6.6.3 What IRQs to choose?
     6.7 Choosing Addresses --Video card conflict with ttyS3
     6.8 Set IO Address & IRQ in the hardware (mostly for PnP)
        6.8.1 Using a PnP BIOS to I0-IRQ Configure
     6.9 Giving the IRQ and IO Address to Setserial
     6.10 High-level Configuring: stty, etc.
        6.10.1 Configuring Flow Control: Hardware Flow Control is Best

  7. Serial Port Devices /dev/ttyS2, etc.

     7.1 Serial Port Device Names & Numbers
     7.2 Link ttySN to /dev/modem ?
     7.3 Notes For Multiport Boards
     7.4 Creating Devices In the /dev directory

  8. Interesting Programs You Should Know About

     8.1 Serial Monitoring/Diagnostics Programs
     8.2 Changing Interrupt Priority
     8.3 What is Setserial ?
        8.3.1 Introduction
        8.3.2 Probing
        8.3.3 Can Linux Configure The Serial Devices Automagically?
        8.3.4 Boot-time Configuration
        8.3.5 New configuration method using /etc/serial.conf
        8.3.6 Old configuration method: edit a script
        8.3.7 IRQs
     8.4 Stty
        8.4.1 Introduction
        8.4.2 Using stty for a "foreign" terminal
        8.4.3 Two interfaces at a terminal
        8.4.4 Where to put the stty command ?
     8.5 What is isapnp ?

  9. Speed (Flow Rate)

     9.1 Can't Set a High Enough Speed
        9.1.1 How speed is set in hardware: the divisor and baud_base
        9.1.2 Work-arounds for setting speed
        9.1.3 Crystal frequency is not baud_base
     9.2 Higher Serial Throughput

  10. Communications Programs And Utilities

     10.1 List of Software
     10.2 kermit and zmodem

  11. Serial Tips And Miscellany

     11.1 Line Drivers
     11.2 Known Defective Hardware
        11.2.1 Avoiding IO Address Conflicts with Certain Video Boards
        11.2.2 Problem with AMD Elan SC400 CPU (PC-on-a-chip)
     11.3 What Are Lock Files ?

  12. Troubleshooting

     12.1 Serial Electrical Test Equipment
        12.1.1 Breakout Gadgets, etc.
        12.1.2 Measuring Voltages
        12.1.3 Taste Voltage
     12.2 Serial Monitoring/Diagnostics
     12.3 The following subsections are in both the Serial and Modem HOWTOs:
     12.4 My Serial Port is Physically There but Can't be Found
     12.5 Extremely Slow: Text appears on the screen slowly after long delays
     12.6 Somewhat Slow: I expected it to be a few times faster
     12.7 The Startup Screen Show Wrong IRQs for the Serial Ports.
     12.8 "Cannot open /dev/ttyS?: Permission denied"
     12.9 "Operation not supported by device" for ttyS?
     12.10 "Cannot create lockfile. Sorry"
     12.11 "Device /dev/ttyS? is locked."
     12.12 "/dev/ttyS?: Device or resource busy"
     12.13 Troubleshooting Tools

  13. Interrupt Problem Details

     13.1 Types of interrupt problems
     13.2 Symptoms of Mis-set or Conflicting Interrupts
     13.3 Mis-set Interrupts
     13.4 Interrupt Conflicts
     13.5 Resolving Interrupt Problems

  14. What Are UARTs?  How Do They Affect Performance?

     14.1 Introduction to UARTS
     14.2 Two Types of UARTs
     14.3 FIFOs
     14.4 UART Model Numbers

  15. Pinout and Signals

     15.1 Pinout
     15.2 Signals May Have No Fixed Meaning
     15.3 Cabling Between Serial Ports
     15.4 RTS/CTS and DTR/DSR Flow Control
        15.4.1 The DTR and DSR Pins
     15.5 Preventing a Port From Opening

  16. Voltage Waveshapes

     16.1 Voltage for a Bit
     16.2 Voltage Sequence for a Byte
     16.3 Parity Explained
     16.4 Forming a Byte (Framing)
     16.5 How "Asynchronous" is Synchronized

  17. Other Serial Devices (not async EIA-232)

     17.1 Successors to EIA-232
     17.2 EIA-422-A (balanced) and EIA-423-A (unbalanced)
     17.3 EIA-485
     17.4 EIA-530
     17.5 EIA-612/613
     17.6 The Universal Serial Bus (USB)
     17.7 Synchronization & Synchronous
        17.7.1 Defining Asynchronous vs Synchronous
        17.7.2 Synchronous Communication

  18. Other Sources of Information

     18.1 Books
     18.2 Serial Software
     18.3 Linux Documents
     18.4 Usenet newsgroups:
     18.5 Serial Mailing List
     18.6 Internet


  ______________________________________________________________________

  1.  Introduction

  This HOWTO covers basic info on the Serial Port and multiport serial
  cards.  Information specific to modems and text-terminals has been
  moved to Modem-HOWTO and Text-Terminal-HOWTO.  Info on getty has been
  also moved to these HOWTOs since mgetty and uugetty are best for
  modems while agetty is best for text-terminals.  If you are dealing
  with a modem, text terminal, or printer, then you may not need to
  consult this HOWTO.  But if you are using the serial port for some
  other device, using a multiport serial card, trouble-shooting the
  serial port itself, or want to understand more technical details of
  the serial port, then you may want to use this HOWTO as well as some
  of the other HOWTOs.  (See ``Related HOWTO's'')  This HOWTO lists info
  on various multiport serial cards since they may be used for either
  modems or text-terminals.  This HOWTO addresses Linux running on Intel
  x86 hardware, although it might be valid for other architectures.


  1.1.  Copyright, Disclaimer, & Credits

  1.1.1.  Copyright

  Copyright (c) 1993-1997 by Greg Hankins, 1998-1999 by David S. Lawyer.

  Please freely copy and distribute (sell or give away) this document in
  any format.  Forward any corrections and comments to the document
  maintainer.  You may create a derivative work and distribute it
  provided that you:


  1. Send your derivative work (in the most suitable format such as
     sgml) to the LDP (Linux Documentation Project) or the like for
     posting on the Internet.  If not the LDP, then let the LDP know
     where it is available.  Except for a translation, send a copy to
     the previous maintainer's url as shown in the latest version.

  2. License the derivative work in the spirit of this license or use
     GPL.  Include a copyright notice and at least a pointer to the
     license used.

  3. Give due credit to previous authors and major contributors.

  If you're considering making a derived work other than a translation,
  it's requested that you discuss your plans with the current
  maintainer.


  1.1.2.  Disclaimer

  While I haven't intentionally tried to mislead you, there are likely a
  number of errors in this document.  Please let me know about them.
  Since this is free documentation, it should be obvious that I cannot
  be held legally responsible for any errors.



  1.1.3.  Credits

  Most of the original Serial-HOWTO was written by  Greg Hankins.
  gregh@cc.gatech.edu He also rewrote many contributions by others in
  order to maintain continuity in the writing style and flow.  He wrote:
  "Thanks to everyone who has contributed or commented, the list of
  people has gotten too long to list (somewhere over one hundred).
  Special thanks to Ted Ts'o for answering questions about the serial
  drivers.  Approximately half of v2.00 was from Greg Hankins HOWTO and
  the other half is by David Lawyer.  Ted Ts'o has continued to be
  helpful.




  1.2.  Release Notes

  2.00 was a major revision which has removed info on Terminals and
  Modems from the old Serial-HOWTO and put such info into:

  o  Text-Terminal-HOWTO

  o  Modem-HOWTO

  2.01: Added info on Plug-and-Play from Modem-HOWTO and more.  Info on
  setserial and stty has been updated.  I still haven't checked out all
  the info on multiport cards to see if it's up-to-date.  The fact that
  this HOWTO was pieced together from various sources has resulted in a
  certain lack of integration.  This may be improved on in future
  versions.


  1.3.  New Versions of this Serial-HOWTO

  New versions of the Serial-HOWTO will be available to browse and/or
  download at LDP mirror sites.  For a list of mirror sites see:
  <http://metalab.unc.edu/LDP/mirrors.html>.  Various formats are
  available.  If you only want to quickly check the date of the latest
  version look at  <http://metalab.unc.edu/LDP/HOWTO/Serial-HOWTO.html>
  and compare it to this version: v2.05, 1 January 2000


  1.4.  Related HOWTO's re the Serial Port

  Modems, Text-Terminals, some printers, and other peripherals often use
  the serial port.  Get these HOWTOs from the nearest mirror site as
  explained above.


  o  Modem-HOWTO is about installing and configuring modems

  o  Printing-HOWTO has info on using a serial printer

  o  Serial-Programming-HOWTO helps you write C programs (or parts of
     them) that read and write to the serial port and/or check/set its
     state.  A new version is expected soon.

  o  Text-Terminal-HOWTO is about how they work, how to install
     configure, and repair them.


  1.5.  Feedback

  Please send me any questions, comments, suggestions, or additional
  material.  I'm always eager to hear about what you think about this
  HOWTO.  I'm also always on the lookout for improvements!  Tell me
  exactly what you don't understand, or what could be clearer.  You can
  reach me via email at  (David Lawyer).


  1.6.  What is a Serial Port?

  The conventional serial port (not the newer USB port, or HSSI port) is
  a very old I/O port.  Almost all PC's have them.  But Macs (Apple
  Computer) after mid 1998 (with colored cases) only have the USB port.
  The common specification is RS-232 (or EIA-232).  The connector for
  the serial port is often seen as one or two 9-pin connectors (in some
  cases 25-pin) on the back of a PC.  But the serial port is is more
  than just that.  It includes the associated electronics which must
  produce signals conforming to the EIA-232 specification.  See
  ``Voltage Waveshapes''.  One pin is used to send out data bytes and
  another to receive data bytes.  Another pin is a common signal ground.
  The other "useful" pins are used mainly for signalling purposes with a
  steady negative voltage meaning "off" and a steady positive voltage
  meaning "on".

  The UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter) chip does most
  of the work.  Today, the functionality of this chip is usually built
  into another chip.  See ``What Are UARTs?'' These have improved over
  time and old models (several years old) are now obsolete.

  The serial port was originally designed for connecting modems but it's
  used to connect many other devices also such as mice, text-terminals,
  some printers, etc. to a computer.  You just plug these devices into
  the serial port using the correct cable.  Many internal modem cards
  have a built-in serial port so when you install one inside your PC
  it's as if you just installed another serial port in your PC.


  2.  How the Hardware Transfers Bytes

  2.1.  Transmitting

  Transmitting is sending bytes out of the serial port away from the
  computer.  The first explanation given here will be grossly
  oversimplified.  Then more detail will be added in later explanations.
  When the computer wants to send a byte out the serial port the CPU
  sends the byte on the bus inside the computer to the I/O address of
  the serial port.  The serial port takes the byte, and sends it out one
  bit at a time (a serial bit-stream) on the transmit pin of the serial
  connector.  For what a bit (and byte) look like electrically see
  ``Voltage Waveshapes''.  Everything in this section is about
  transmission of bytes (and not about reception which uses another set
  of hardware inside the serial port).

  Here's a replay of the above in a little more detail (but still very
  incomplete).  Most of the work at the serial port is done by the UART
  chip (or the like).  To transmit a byte, the serial device driver
  program (running on the CPU) sends a byte to the serial port"s I/O
  address.  This byte gets into a 1-byte "transmit shift register" in
  the serial port.  From this shift register bits are taken from the
  byte one-by-one and sent out bit-by-bit on the serial line.  Then when
  the last bit has been sent the shift register needs another byte to
  send it could ask the CPU to send it another byte.  Thus would be
  simple but it would likely introduce delays since the CPU might not be
  able to get the byte immediately.  After all, the CPU is usually doing
  other things besides just handling the serial port.

  A way to eliminate delays of getting a byte into the shift register is
  to arrange things so that the CPU gets the byte before the shift
  register needs it and stores it in a serial port buffer (in hardware).
  Then when the shift register has sent out its byte and needs a new
  byte immediately, the serial port hardware just transfers the next
  byte from its own buffer to the shift register.  No need to call the
  CPU to do this.

  The size of this serial port buffer was originally only one byte, but
  today it is usually 16 bytes (more in higher priced serial ports).
  Now there is still the problem of keeping this buffer sufficiently
  supplied with bytes so that when the shift register needs a byte to
  transmit it will always find one there (unless there are no more bytes
  to send).  This is done by contacting the CPU using an interrupt.

  For the old fashioned one-byte buffer it works like this.  When the
  shift register grabs the byte out of the buffer and the butter needs
  another byte, it sends an interrupt to the CPU by putting a voltage on
  a dedicated wire on the computer bus.  Unless the CPU is doing
  something very important, the interrupt forces it to stop what it was
  doing and start running a program which will supply another byte to
  the port's buffer.  Thus the purpose of this buffer is to keep a ready
  supply of bytes (waiting to be sent) queued in hardware so that there
  will be no gaps in transmission of bytes out the serial port.

  Once the CPU gets the interrupt, it will know who sent the interrupt
  since there is a dedicated interrupt wire for each serial port (unless
  interrupts are shared).  Then the CPU will start running the serial
  device driver which checks registers at I/0 addresses to find out what
  has happened.  It finds out that the serial's transmit buffer is empty
  and waiting for another byte.  So if there are more bytes to send, it
  sends the next byte to the serial port's I/0 address.  This next byte
  should arrive when the previous byte is still in the transmit shift
  register and still being transmitted bit-by-bit.

  In review, when a byte has been fully transmitted out the transmit
  wire of the serial port and the shift register is now empty the
  following 3 things happen almost simultaneously:


  1. Another new byte is moved from the transmit buffer into the
     transmit shift register

  2. The transmission of this new byte (bit-by-bit) begins

  3. Another interrupt is issued to tell the device driver to send
     another byte to the now empty transmit buffer

  We say that the serial port is interrupt driven.  Each time the serial
  port issues an interrupt, the CPU sends it another byte.  Once a byte
  has been sent to the transmit buffer by the CPU, then the CPU is free
  to pursue some other activity until it gets the next interrupt.  The
  serial port transmits bits at a fixed rate which is selected by the
  user (or an application program).  It's sometimes called the baud
  rate.  The serial port also adds extra bits to each byte (start, stop
  and perhaps parity bits) so there are often 10 bits sent per byte.  At
  a rate (also called speed) of 19,200 bits per second (bps), there are
  thus 1,920 bytes/sec (and also 1,920 interrupts/sec).

  Doing all this is a lot of work for the CPU.  This is true for many
  reasons.  First, just sending one 8-bit byte at a time over a 32-bit
  data bus (or even 64-bit) is not a very efficient use of bus width.
  Also, there is a lot of overhead in handing each interrupt.  When the
  interrupt is received, the device driver only knows that something
  caused an interrupt at the serial port but doesn't know that it's
  because a character has been sent.  The device driver has to make
  various checks to find out what happened.  The same interrupt could
  mean that a character was received, one of the control lines changed
  state, etc.

  One improvement has been the enlargement of the buffer size of the
  serial port.  Most serial ports today have 16-byte buffers instead of
  just 1-byte buffers.  This means that when the CPU gets an interrupt
  it gives the serial port up to 16 new bytes to transmit.  This is
  fewer interrupts to service but data must still be transferred one
  byte at a time over a wide bus.  The 16-byte buffer is actually a FIFO
  (First In First Out) queue.  For a repetition of some of the above
  plus a few more details see ``FIFOs''.


  2.2.  Receiving

  Receiving bytes by a serial port is similar to sending them only it's
  in the opposite direction.  It's also interrupt driven.  For the
  obsolete type of serial port with 1-byte buffers, when a byte is fully
  received it goes into the 1-byte receive buffer.  Then the port gives
  the CPU an interrupt to tell it to pick up that byte so that the
  serial port will have room for storing the byte which is currently
  being received.  For newer serial ports with 16-byte buffers, this
  interrupt (to fetch the bytes) may be sent after 14 bytes are in the
  receive buffer.  The CPU then stops what it was doing, runs the
  interrupt service routine, and picks up 1 to 16 bytes from the port.
  For an interrupt sent when the 14th byte has been received, there
  could be 16 bytes to get if 2 more bytes have arrived since the
  interrupt.  But if 3 more bytes should arrive (instead of 2), then the
  16 byte buffer will overrun.


  2.3.  The Large Serial Buffers

  We've talked about small (1 or 16 byte) serial port hardware buffers
  but there are also much larger buffers in main memory.  When the CPU
  takes bytes (1 to 16) out of the receive buffer of the hardware, it
  puts them into a huge (say 8K-byte) receive buffer in main memory.
  Then a program that is getting bytes from the serial port takes the
  bytes it's receiving out of that large buffer (using a "read"
  statement in the program).  A similar situation exists for bytes that
  are to be transmitted.  When the CPU needs to fetch some bytes to be
  transmitted it takes them out of a large (8K-byte) transmit buffer in
  main memory and puts them into the small transmit buffer (1 or 16
  bytes) in the hardware.


  3.  Serial Port Basics

  You don't have to understand the basics to use the serial port But
  understanding it may help to determine what is wrong if you run into
  problems.  This section not only presents new topics but also repeats
  some of what was said in the previous section ``How the Hardware
  Transfers Bytes'' but in greater detail.


  3.1.  What is a Serial Port ?

  3.1.1.  Intro to Serial

  The serial port is an I/O (Input/Output) device.

  An I/O device is just a way to get data into and out of a computer.
  There are many types of I/O devices such as serial ports, parallel
  ports, disk drive controllers, ethernet boards, universal serial
  buses, etc.  Most PC's have one or two serial ports.  Each has a 9-pin
  connector (sometimes 25-pin) on the back of the computer.  Computer
  programs can send data (bytes) to the transmit pin (output) and
  receive bytes from the receive pin (input).  The other pins are for
  control purposes and ground.

  The serial port is much more than just a connector.  It converts the
  data from parallel to serial and changes the electrical representation
  of the data.  Inside the computer, data bits flow in parallel (using
  many wires at the same time).  Serial flow is a stream of bits over a
  single wire (such as on the transmit or receive pin of the serial
  connector).  For the serial port to create such a flow, it must
  convert data from parallel (inside the computer) to serial on the
  transmit pin (and conversely).

  Most of the electronics of the serial port is found in a computer chip
  (or a section of a chip) known as a UART.  For more details on UARTs
  see the section ``What Are UARTs?  How Do They Affect Performance?''.
  But you may want to finish this section first so that you will
  hopefully understand how the UART fits into the overall scheme of
  things.


  3.1.2.  Pins and Wires

  Old PC's used 25 pin connectors but only about 9 pins were actually
  used so today most connectors are only 9-pin.  Each of the 9 pins
  usually connects to a wire.  Besides the two wires used for
  transmitting and receiving data, another pin (wire) is signal ground.
  The voltage on any wire is measured with respect to this ground.  Thus
  the minimum number of wires to use for 2-way transmission of data is
  3.  Except that it has been known to work with no signal ground wire
  but with degraded performance and sometimes with errors.

  There are still more wires which are for control purposes (signalling)
  only and not for sending bytes.  All of these signals could have been
  shared on a single wire, but instead, there is a separate dedicated
  wire for every type of signal.  Some (or all) of these control wires
  are called "modem control lines".  Modem control wires are either in
  the asserted state (on) of +12 volts or in the negated state (off) of
  -12 volts.  One of these wires is to signal the computer to stop
  sending bytes out the serial port cable.  Conversely, another wire
  signals the device attached to the serial port to stop sending bytes
  to the computer.  If the attached device is a modem, other wires may
  tell the modem to hang up the telephone line or tell the computer that
  a connection has been made or that the telephone line is ringing
  (someone is attempting to call in).  See section ``Pinout and
  Signals'' for more details.




  3.1.3.  RS-232 or EIA-232, etc.

  The serial port (not the USB) is usually a RS-232-C, EIA-232-D, or
  EIA-232-E.  These three are almost the same thing.  The original RS
  (Recommended Standard) prefix became EIA (Electronics Industries
  Association) and later EIA/TIA after EIA merged with TIA
  (Telecommunications Industries Association).  The EIA-232 spec
  provides also for synchronous (sync) communication but the hardware to
  support sync is almost always missing on PC's.  The RS designation is
  obsolete but is still widely used.  EIA will be used in this howto.
  Some documents use the full EIA/TIA designation.  For info on other
  (non-EIA-232) serial ports see the section ``Other Serial Devices (not
  async EIA-232)''


  3.2.  IO Address & IRQ

  Since the computer needs to communicate with each serial port, the
  operating system must know that each serial port exists and where it
  is (its I/O address).  It also needs to know which wire (IRQ number)
  the serial port must use to request service from the computer's CPU.
  It requests service by sending an interrupt on this wire.  Thus every
  serial port device must store in its non-volatile memory both its I/O
  address and its Interrupt ReQuest number: IRQ.  See ``Interrupts''.
  For the PCI bus it doesn't work exactly this way since the PCI bus has
  its own system of interrupts.  But since the PCI-aware BIOS sets up
  chips to map these PCI interrupts to IRQs, it seemingly behaves just
  as described above except that sharing of interrupts is allowed (2 or
  more devices may use the same IRQ number).

  I/O addresses are not the same as memory addresses.  When an I/O
  addresses is put onto the computer's address bus, another wire is
  energized.  This both tells main memory to ignore the address and
  tells all devices which have I/O addresses (such as the serial port)
  to listen to the address to see if it matches the device's.  If the
  address matches, then the I/O device reads the data on the data bus.


  3.3.  Names: ttyS0, ttyS1, etc.

  The serial ports are named ttyS0, ttyS1, etc. (and usually correspond
  respectively to COM1, COM2, etc. in DOS/Windows).  The /dev directory
  has a special file for each port.  Type "ls /dev/ttyS*" to see them.
  Just because there may be (for example) a ttyS3 file, doesn't
  necessarily mean that there exists a physical serial port there.

  Which one of these names (ttyS0, ttyS1, etc.) refers to which physical
  serial port is determined as follows.  The serial driver (software)
  maintains a table showing which I/O address corresponds to which ttyS.
  This mapping of names (such as ttyS1) to I/O addresses (and IRQ's) may
  be both set and viewed by the "setserial" command.  See ``What is
  Setserial''.  This does not set the I/O address and IRQ in the
  hardware itself (which is set by jumpers or by plug-and-play
  software).  Thus what physical port corresponds to say ttyS1 depends
  both on what the serial driver thinks (per setserial) and what is set
  in the hardware.  If a mistake has been made, the physical port may
  not correspond to any name (such as ttyS2) and thus it can't be used.
  See ``Serial Port Devices /dev/ttyS2, etc.'' for more details>


  3.4.  Interrupts



  When the serial port receives a number of bytes (may be set to 1, 4,
  8, or 14) into its FIFO buffer, it signals the CPU to fetch them by
  sending an electrical signal known as an interrupt on a certain wire
  normally used only by that port.  Thus the FIFO waits for a number of
  bytes and then issues an interrupt.

  However, this interrupt will also be sent if there is an unexpected
  delay while waiting for the next byte to arrive (known as a timeout).
  Thus if the bytes are being received slowly (such as someone typing on
  a terminal keyboard) there may be an interrupt issued for every byte
  received.  For some UART chips the rule is like this: If 4 bytes in a
  row could have been received, but none of these 4 show up, then the
  port gives up waiting for more bytes and issues an interrupt to fetch
  the bytes currently in the FIFO.  Of course, if the FIFO is empty, no
  interrupt will be issued.

  Each interrupt conductor (inside the computer) has a number (IRQ) and
  the serial port must know which conductor to use to signal on.  For
  example, ttyS0 normally uses IRQ number 4 known as IRQ4 (or IRQ 4).  A
  list of them and more will be found in "man setserial" (search for
  "Configuring Serial Ports").  Interrupts are issued whenever the
  serial port needs to get the CPU's attention.  It's important to do
  this in a timely manner since the buffer inside the serial port can
  hold only 16 (1 in old serial ports) incoming bytes.  If the CPU fails
  to remove such received bytes promptly, then there will not be any
  space left for any more incoming bytes and the small buffer may
  overflow (overrun) resulting in a loss of data bytes.  There is no
  ``Flow Control'' to prevent this.

  Interrupts are also issued when the serial port has just sent out all
  16 of its bytes from its small transmit buffer out the external cable.
  It then has space for 16 more outgoing bytes.  The interrupt is to
  notify the CPU of that fact so that it may put more bytes in the small
  transmit buffer to be transmitted.  Also, when a modem control line
  changes state an interrupt is issued.

  The buffers mentioned above are all hardware buffers.  The serial port
  also has large buffers in main memory.  This will be explained later

  Interrupts convey a lot of information but only indirectly.  The
  interrupt itself just tells a chip called the interrupt controller
  that a certain serial port needs attention.  The interrupt controller
  then signals the CPU.  The CPU runs a special program to service the
  serial port.  That program is called an interrupt service routine
  (part of the serial driver software).  It tries to find out what has
  happened at the serial port and then deals with the problem such a
  transferring bytes from (or to) the serial port's hardware buffer.
  This program can easily find out what has happened since the serial
  port has registers at IO addresses known to the the serial driver
  software.  These registers contain status information about the serial
  port.  The software reads these registers and by inspecting the
  contents, finds out what has happened and takes appropriate action.






  3.5.  Data Flow (Speeds)

  Data (bytes representing letters, pictures, etc.) flows into and out
  of your serial port.  Flow rates (such as 56k (56000) bits/sec) are
  (incorrectly) called "speed".  But almost everyone says "speed"
  instead of "flow rate".

  It's important to understand that the average speed is often less than
  the specified speed.  Waits (or idle time) result in a lower average
  speed.  These waits may include long waits of perhaps a second due to
  ``Flow Control''.  At the other extreme there may be very short waits
  (idle time) of several micro-seconds between bytes.  If the device on
  the serial port (such as a modem) can't accept the full serial port
  speed, then the average speed must be reduced.


  3.6.  Flow Control

  Flow control means the ability to stop the flow of bytes in a wire.
  It also includes provisions to restart the flow without any loss of
  bytes.  Flow control is needed for modems to allow a jump in
  instantaneous flow rates.


  3.6.1.  Example of Flow Control

  For example, consider the case where you connect a 36.6k external
  modem via a short cable to your serial port.  The modem sends and
  receives bytes over the phone line at  36.6k bits per second (bps).
  It's not doing any data compression or error correction.  You have set
  the serial port speed to 115,200 bits/sec (bps), and you are sending
  data from your computer to the phone line.  Then the flow from the
  your computer to your modem over the short cable is at 115.2k bps.
  However the flow from your modem out the phone line is only 33.6k bps.
  Since a faster flow (115.2k) is going into your modem than is coming
  out of it, the modem is storing the excess flow (115.2k -33.6k = 81.6k
  bps) in one of its buffers.  This buffer would eventually overrun (run
  out of free storage space) unless the 115.2k flow is stopped.

  But now flow control comes to the rescue.  When the modem's buffer is
  almost full, the modem sends a stop signal to the serial port.  The
  serial port passes on the stop signal on to the device driver and the
  115.2k bps flow is halted.  Then the modem continues to send out data
  at 33.6k bps drawing on the data it previous accumulated in its
  buffer.  Since nothing is coming into the buffer, the level of bytes
  in it starts to drop.  When almost no bytes are left in the buffer,
  the modem sends a start signal to the serial port and the 115.2k flow
  from the computer to the modem resumes.  In effect, flow control
  creates an average flow rate in the short cable (in this case 33.6k)
  which is significantly less than the "on" flow rate of 115.2k bps.
  This is "start-stop" flow control.

  The above is a simple example of flow control for flow from the
  computer to a modem , but there is also flow control which is used for
  the opposite direction of flow: from a modem (or other device) to a
  computer.  Each direction of flow involve 3 buffers: 1. in the modem
  2. in the UART chip (called FIFOs) 3. in main memory managed by the
  serial driver.  Flow control protects certain buffers from
  overflowing.  The small UART FIFO buffers are not protected in this
  way but rely instead on a fast response to the interrupts they issue.
  FIFO stand for "First In, First Out" which is the way it handles
  bytes.  All the 3 buffers use the FIFO rule but only one of them also
  uses it as a name.  This is the essence of flow control but there are
  still some more details.




  3.6.2.  Symptoms of No Flow Control

  Understanding flow-control theory can be of practical use.  The
  symptom of no flow control is chunks of data missing from files sent
  without the benefit of flow control.  This is because when overflow
  happens, it's usually more than just a few bytes that overflow and are
  lost.  Often hundreds or even thousands of bytes get lost, and all in
  contiguous chunks.


  3.6.3.  Hardware vs. Software Flow Control

  If feasible it's best to use "hardware" flow control that uses two
  dedicated "modem control" wires to send the "stop" and "start"
  signals.


  Software flow control uses the main receive and transmit wires to send
  the start and stop signals.  It uses the ASCII control characters DC1
  (start) and DC3 (stop) for this purpose.  They are just inserted into
  the regular stream of data.  Software flow control is not only slower
  in reacting but also does not allow the sending of binary data unless
  special precautions are taken.  Since binary data will likely contain
  DC1 and DC3, special means must be taken to distinguish between a DC3
  that means a flow control stop and a DC3 that is part of the binary
  code.  Likewise for DC1.



  3.7.  Data Flow Path; Buffers

  Although much has been explained about this including flow control, a
  pair of 16-byte FIFO buffers (in the hardware), and a pair of larger
  buffers inside a device connected to the serial port there is still
  another pair of buffers.  These are large buffers (perhaps 8k) in main
  memory also known as serial port buffers.  When an application program
  sends bytes to the serial port they first get stashed in the the
  transmit serial port buffer in main memory.  The pair consists of both
  this transmit buffer and a receive buffer for the opposite direction
  of byte-flow.


  The serial device driver takes out say 16 bytes from this transmit
  buffer, one byte at a time and puts them into the 16-byte transmit
  buffer in the serial hardware for transmission.  Once in that transmit
  buffer, there is no way to stop them from being transmitted.  They are
  then transmitted to the device connected to the serial port which also
  has a fair sized (say 1k) buffer.  When the device driver (on orders
  from flow control) stops the flow of outgoing bytes from the computer,
  what it actually stops is the flow of outgoing bytes from the large
  transmit buffer in main memory.  Even after this has happened and the
  flow to the device connected to the serial port has stopped, an
  application program may keep sending bytes to the 8k transmit buffer
  until it becomes fill.

  When it gets fill, the application program can't send any more bytes
  to it (a "write" statement in a C_program blocks) and the application
  program temporarily stops running and waits until some buffer space
  becomes available.  Thus a flow control "stop" is ultimately able to
  stop the program that is sending the bytes.  Even though this program
  stops, the computer does not necessarily stop computing.  It may
  switch to running other processes while it's waiting at a flow control
  stop.  The above was a little oversimplified since there is another
  alternative of having the application program itself do something else
  while it is waiting to "write".




  3.8.  Complex Flow Control Example

  For many situations, there is a transmit path involving several links,
  each with its own flow control.  For example, I type at a text-
  terminal connected to a PC with a modem to access a BBS.  For this I
  use the application program "minicom" which deals with 2 serial ports:
  one connected to a modem and another connected to the text-terminal.
  What I type at the text terminal goes into the first serial port to
  minicom, then from minicom out the second serial port to the modem,
  and then onto the telephone line to the BBS.  The text-terminal has a
  limit to the speed at which bytes can be displayed on its screen and
  issues a flow control "stop" from time to time to slow down the flow.
  What happens when such a "stop" is issued?  Let's consider a case
  where the "stop" is long enough to get thru to the BBS and stop the
  program at the BBS which is sending out the bytes.

  Let's trace out the flow of this "stop" (which may be "hardware" on
  some links and "software" on others).  First, suppose I'm "capturing"
  a long file from the BBS which is being sent simultaneously to both my
  text-terminal and a to file on my hard-disk.  The bytes are coming in
  faster than the terminal can handle them so it sends a "stop" out its
  serial port to the first serial port on my PC.  The device driver
  detects it and stops sending bytes from the 8k serial buffer (in main
  memory) to the terminal.  Now minicom still keeps sending out bytes
  for the terminal into this 8k buffer.

  When this 8k transmit buffer (on the first serial port) is full,
  minicom must stop writing to it.  Minicom stops and waits.  But this
  also causes minicom to stop reading from the 8k receive buffer on the
  2nd serial port connected to the modem.  Flow from the modem continues
  until this 8k buffer too fills up and sends a different "stop" to the
  modem.  Now the modem's buffer ceases to send to the serial port and
  also fills up.  The modem (assuming error correction is enabled) sends
  a "stop signal" to the other modem at the BBS.  This modem stops
  sending bytes out of its buffer and when its buffer gets fill, another
  stop signal is sent to the serial port of the BBS.  At the BBS, the
  8-k (or whatever) buffer fills up and the program at the BBS can't
  write to it anymore and thus temporarily halts.

  Thus a stop signal from a text terminal has halted a programs on a BBS
  computer.  What a complex sequence of events!  Note that the stop
  signal passed thru 4 serial ports, 2 modems, and one application
  program (minicom).  Each serial port has 2 buffers (in one direction
  of flow): the 8k one and the hardware 16-byte one.  The application
  program may have a buffer in its C_code.  This adds up to 11 different
  buffers the data is passing thru.  Note that the small serial hardware
  buffers do not participate directly in flow control.

  If the terminal speed limitation is the bottleneck in the flow from
  the BBS to the terminal, then its flow control "stop" is actually
  stopping the program that is sending from the BBS as explained above.
  But you may ask: How can a "stop" last so long that 11 buffers (some
  of them large) all get filled up?   It can actually happen this way if
  all the buffers were near their upper limits when the terminal sent
  out the "stop".

  But if you were to run a simulation on it you would discover that it's
  usually more complicated than this.  At an instant of time some links
  are flowing and others are stopped (due to flow control).  A "stop"
  from the terminal seldom propagates back to the BBS neatly as
  described above.  It may take a few "stops" from the terminal to
  result in one "stop" at the BBS.  To understand what is going on you
  really need to observe a simulation which can be done for a simple
  case with coins on a table.  Use only a few buffers and set the upper
  level for each buffer at only a few coins.

  Does one really need to understand all this?  Well, understanding this
  explained to me why capturing text from a BBS was loosing text.  The
  situation was exactly the above example but modem-to-modem flow
  control was disabled.  Chunks of captured text that were supposed to
  also get to my hard-disk never got there because of an overflow at my
  modem buffer due to flow control "stops" from the terminal.  Even
  though the BBS had a flow path to the hard-disk without bottlenecks,
  the overflow due to the terminal happened on this path and chunks of
  text were lost and never even made it to the hard-disk.  Note that the
  flow to the hard-disk passed thru my modem and since the overflow
  happened there, bytes intended for the hard-disk were lost.


  3.9.  Serial Software: Device Driver Module

  The device driver for the serial port is the software that operates
  the serial port.  It is now provided as a serial module.  This module
  will normally get loaded automatically if it's needed.  The kernel 2.2
  + will do this.  In earlier kernels, you had to have kerneld running
  in order to do auto-load modules on demand.  Otherwise the serial
  module needed to be explicitly listed in /etc/modules.  Before modules
  became popular with Linux, the serial driver was usually built into
  the kernel.  If it's still built into the kernel (you might have
  selected this when you compiled the kernel) don't let the serial
  module load.  If you do and wind up with two serial drivers, it's
  reported that you can't use the serial ports and get an "I/O error" if
  an attempt is made to open them.

  When the serial module is loaded it displays a message on the screen
  about the existing serial ports (often showing a wrong IRQ).  But once
  the module is used by setserial to tell the device driver the
  (hopefully) correct IRQ then you should see a second display similar
  to the first but with the correct IRQ, etc. See ``What is Setserial''
  for more info on setserial. )

  One may modify the driver by editing the kernel source code.  Much of
  the serial driver is found in the file serial.c.  For details
  regarding writing of programs for the serial port see Serial-
  Programming-HOWTO (currently being revised by Vern Hoxie).
  4.  Is the Serial Port Obsolete?

  4.1.  Introduction

  The answer is yes, but ... The serial port is somewhat obsolete but
  it's still needed, especially for Linux.  The serial port has many
  shortcomings but almost all new PC's seem to come with them them.
  Linux supports ordinary telephone modems only if they work thru a
  serial port.

  The serial port must pass data between the computer and the external
  cable.  Thus it has two interfaces and both of these interfaces are
  slow.  First we'll consider the interface via external cable to the
  outside world.


  4.2.  EIA-232 Cable Is Low Speed & Short Distance

  The conventional EIA-232 serial port is inherently low speed and is
  severely limited in distance.  Ads often read "high speed" but it can
  only work at "high speed" over very short distances such as to a modem
  located right next to the computer.  Compared to a network card, even
  this "high speed" is low speed.  All of the serial cable wires use a
  common ground return wire so that twisted-pair technology (needed for
  high speeds) can't be used without additional hardware.  More modern
  interfaces for serial ports exist but they are not standard on PC's
  like the EIA-232 is.  See ``Successors to EIA-232''.  Some multiport
  serial cards support them.

  It is somewhat tragic that the RS-232 standard from 1969 did not use
  twisted pair technology which could operate about a hundred times
  faster.  Twisted pairs have been used in telephone cables since the
  late 1800's.  In 1888 (over 110 years ago) the "Cable Conference"
  reported its support of twisted-pair (for telephone systems) and
  pointed out its advantages.  But over 80 years after this approval by
  the "Cable Conference", RS-232 failed to utilize it.   Since RS-232
  was originally designed for connecting a terminal to a low speed modem
  located nearby, the need for high speed and longer distance
  transmission was apparently not recognized.


  4.3.  Inefficient Interface to the Computer

  To communicate with the computer, any I/O device needs to have an
  address so that the computer can write to it and read from it.  For
  this purpose many I/O devices (such as serial ports) use a special
  type of address known as an I/O addresses (sometimes called an I/O
  port).   It's actually a range of addresses and the lower address in
  this range is the base address.  If someone only says (or writes)
  "address" it likely really means "base address"

  Instead of using I/O, addresses some I/O devices read and write
  directly from/to main memory.  This provides more bandwidth since the
  conventional serial I/O system only moves a byte at a time.  There are
  various ways to read/write directly to main memory.  One way is called
  shared memory I/O (where the shared memory is usually on the same card
  as the I/O device).  Other methods are DMA (direct memory access) on
  the ISA bus and  what is about the same as DMA (only much faster):
  "bus mastering" on the PCI bus.  These methods are a lot faster than
  those used for the serial port.  Thus the conventional serial port
  with it's interrupt driven (every 14 bytes) interface and single bytes
  transfers on a bus which could accommodate 4 (or 8) bytes at a time is
  not suited for very high speed I/O.



  5.  Multiport Serial Boards/Cards/Adapters

  5.1.  Intro to Multiport Serial

  Multiport serial cards install in a slot in a PC on the ISA or PCI
  bus.  Instead of being called "... cards" they are also called "...
  adapters" or "... boards".  Each such card provides you with many
  serial ports.  They were commonly used for connecting up many
  terminals/modems to serial ports but are now obsolete for use with
  modems.  For modem communication today, many modem chips are mounted
  on a single card and connect up to phone lines that carry multiple
  calls (in digital format) on a single circuit.  Such modems are called
  "digital modems" and the phone line interface is called a "...
  concentrator".  Such systems are either stand-alone proprietary
  servers or are implemented in a PC by special cards (no longer called
  "multiport").  Digi calls one such card a "remote access server
  concentrator adapter".  Brief mention of multiport modem cards may be
  found in Modem-HOWTO but concentrators are not covered.

  Now back to the multiport serial cards.  Each card has a number of
  external connecters (DB-25 or RJ45 (telephone-like)) so that one may
  connect up a number of devices (modems, terminals, etc.).  Each such
  physical device would then be connected to its own serial port.  Since
  the space on the external-facing part of the card is limited there is
  often not enough room for all the serial port connectors.  To solve
  this problem, the connectors may be on the ends of cables which come
  out (externally) from the card (octopus cable).  They may also be on
  little boxes which are connected by cable to the multiport card.

  Dumb ones are not too much different than ordinary serial ports.  They
  are interrupt driven and the CPU of the computer does most all the
  work servicing them.  They usually have a system of sharing a single
  interrupt for all the ports.  For this they usually require special
  drivers that you must put into the kernel or activate by modifying
  source code.

  Smart boards may use ordinary UARTs but handle most interrupts from
  the UARTs internally within the board.  This frees the CPU from the
  burden of handling  all these interrupts.  The board may save up bytes
  in its large internal FIFOs and transfer perhaps 1K bytes at a time to
  the serial buffer in main memory.  It may use the full bus width of 32
  bits for making data transfers to main memory (instead of transferring
  only 8-bit bytes like dumb serial cards do).  Not all "smart" boards
  are equally efficient.  Many boards today are Plug-and-Play.

  For a smart board to work, a special driver for it must be used.
  Sometimes this driver is built into the kernel source code or supplied
  as a module.  Even in such cases, you must still do something to
  activate it.  This includes selecting it when you compile the kernel
  (or making sure that a pre-compiled kernel has done this).  The "make
  config" or "make menuconf" commands may display an option for this.
  In some cases there is a special module to load or certain parameters
  to pass to the kernel (via lilo's append command).  The board's
  manufacturer should have info on this on their website.
  Unfortunately, info for old boards is sometimes not there but might be
  found somewhere else on the Internet (including discussion groups).


  5.2.  Making "devices" in the /dev directory

  The serial ports your multiport board uses depends on what kind of
  board you have.  Some of these may be listed in detail in rc.serial or
  in 0setserial.  These files may be included in a >setserial or serial
  package.  I highly recommend getting the latest version of setserial
  if you are trying to use multiport boards.  You will probably need to
  create these devices.  Either use the mknod command, or the MAKEDEV
  script.  Devices (in the /dev directory) for serial ports are made by
  adding ``64 + port number''.  So, if you wanted to create devices for
  ttyS17, you would type:



       linux# mknod -m 666 /dev/cua17 c 5 81
       linux# mknod -m 666 /dev/ttyS17 c 4 81




  Note that ``64 + 17 = 81''.  Using the MAKEDEV script, you would type:


       linux# cd /dev
       linux# ./MAKEDEV ttyS17





  Besides the listing of various brands of multiports found in this
  HOWTO there is Gary's Encyclopedia - Serial Cards
  <http://members.aa.net/~swear/serialcards.html>.  It's not as
  complete, but may have some different links.


  5.3.  Standard PC Serial Boards

  Standard PC serial boards (COM1 - COM4) can be used to, to connect
  external serial devices (modems, serial mice, etc...).  Since PC's no
  longer come with them (but have the chips for this purpose mounted on
  the motherboard), they are hard to find in retail stores.  An internal
  modem for the ISA bus may include a built-in serial port.


  Note: due to address conflicts, you may not be able to use COM4 and
  IBM8514 video board (or clones) simultaneously.  See ``Avoiding IO
  Address Conflicts with Certain Video Boards''


  5.4.  Dumb Multiport Serial Boards (with 8250/16450/16550A UART's)

  They are also called "serial adapters".
  * =>  The file that ran setserial in Debian shows some details of
  configuring # => See note below for this board

  o  AST FourPort and clones (4 ports) * #

  o  Accent Async-4 (4 ports) *

  o  Arnet Multiport-8 (8 ports)

  o  Bell Technologies HUB6 (6 ports)

  o  Boca BB-1004 (4 ports), BB-1008 (8 ports), BB-2016 (16 ports; See
     the mini-howto) * #

  o  Boca IOAT66 or? ATIO66 (6 ports, Linux doesn't support it's IRQ
     sharing ??  Uses odd-ball 10-cond RJ45-like connectors)

  o  Boca 2by4 (4 serial ports, 2 parallel ports)

  o  Byterunner (claims low prices)

  o  Computone ValuePort V4-ISA (AST FourPort compatible) *

  o  Digi PC/8 (8 ports) #

  o  GTEK BBS-550 (8 ports; See the mini-howto)

  o  Hayes ESP (after kernel 2.1.15)

  o  HUB-6 See Bell Technologies.

  o  Longshine LCS-8880, Longshine LCS-8880+ (AST FourPort compatible) *

  o  Moxa C104, Moxa C104+ (AST FourPort compatible) *

  o  NI-SERIAL
     <http://digital.natinst.com/manuals.nsf/web%2Fbyproductcurrent?OpenView&Start=1&Count=500&Expand=15.1#15.1>
     by National Instruments

  o  PC-COMM (4 ports)

  o  Sealevel Systems <http://www.sealevel.com> COMM-2 (2 ports), COMM-4
     (4 ports) and COMM-8 (8 ports)

  o  SIIG I/O Expander 2S IO1812 (4 ports) #

  o  STB-4COM (4 ports)

  o  Twincom ACI/550

  o  Usenet Serial Board II (4 ports) *

  In general, Linux will support any serial board which uses a 8250,
  16450, 16550, 16550A, 16650, etc. UART.  See the latest man page for
  "setserial" for a more complete list.

  Notes:

  AST Fourport: You might need to specify skip_test in rc.serial.

  BB-1004 and BB-1008 do not support DCD and RI lines, and thus are not
  usable for dialin modems.  They will work fine for all other purposes.

  Digi PC/8 Interrupt Status Register is at 0x140.

  SIIG IO1812 manual for the listing for COM5-COM8 is wrong.  They
  should be COM5=0x250, COM6=0x258, COM7=0x260, and COM8=0x268.


  5.5.  Intelligent Multiport Serial Boards

  Make sure that a Linux-compatible driver is available and read the
  information that comes with it.  These boards use special devices (in
  the /dev directory), and not the standard ones.  This information
  varies depending on your hardware.  If you have updated info which
  should be shown here please email it to me.


  o  Comtrol RocketPort (36MHz ASIC; 4, 8, 16, 32, up to 128 ports)
     contact: info@comtrol.com or http://www.comtrol.com
     driver status: supported by Comtrol
     driver location: ftp://tsx-11.mit.edu/pub/linux/packages/comtrol

  o  Computone IntelliPort II (ISA, PCI and EISA busses up to 64 ports)
     contact: Michael H. Warfield,  <mailto:mhw@wittsend.com>,
     <http://www.computone.com>
     driver status: Beta
     driver location:
     <ftp://ftp.computone.com/PUB/Products/IntelliPortII/Linux/BETA>,
     patch at
     <http://www.wittsend.com/computone/linux-2.2.10-ctone.patch.gz>
     mailing list:  <mailto:majordomo@lazuli.wittsend.com> with
     "subscribe linux-computone" in body
     note: Old ATvantage and Intelliport cards are not supported by
     Computone

  o  Cyclades
     Cyclom-Y (Cirrus Logic CD1400 UARTs; 8 - 32 ports),
     Cyclom-Z (MIPS R3000; 8 - 64 ports)
     website:  <http://www.cyclades.com/products.html>
     driver status: supported by Cyclades
     driver location: ftp://ftp.cyclades.com/pub/cyclades and included
     in Linux kernel since version 1.1.75

  o  Decision PCCOM8 (8 ports)
     contact: pccom8@signum.se
     driver location: ftp://ftp.signum.se/pub/pccom8


  o  Digi PC/Xi (12.5MHz 80186; 4, 8, or 16 ports),
     PC/Xe (12.5/16MHz 80186; 2, 4, or 8 ports),
     PC/Xr (16MHz IDT3041; 4 or 8 ports),
     PC/Xem (20MHz IDT3051; 8 - 64 ports)
     website:  <http://www.dgii.com> driver status: supported by Digi
     driver location: ftp://ftp.dgii.com/drivers/linux and included in
     Linux kernel since version 2.0

  o  Digi COM/Xi (10MHz 80188; 4 or 8 ports)
     contact: Simon Park, si@wimpol.demon.co.uk
     driver status: ALPHA
     note: Simon is often away from email for months at a time due to
     his job.  Mark Hatle,  <mailto:fray@krypton.mankato.msus.edu> has
     graciously volunteered to make the driver available if you need it.
     Mark is not maintaining or supporting the driver.

  o  Equinox SuperSerial Technology (30MHz ASIC; 2 - 128 ports)
     contact: sales@equinox.com or http://www.equinox.com
     driver status: supported by Equinox
     driver location: ftp://ftp.equinox.com/library/sst


  o  GTEK Cyclone (16C654 UARTs; 6, 16 and 32 ports),
     SmartCard (24MHz Dallas DS80C320; 8 ports),
     BlackBoard-8A (16C654 UARTs; 8 ports),
     PCSS (15/24MHz 8032; 8 ports)
     contact: spot@gtek.com or http://www.gtek.com
     driver status: supported by GTEK
     driver location: ftp://ftp.gtek.com/pub


  o  Hayes ESP (COM-bic; 1 - 8 ports)
     contact: Andrew J. Robinson, arobinso@nyx.net or
     http://www.nyx.net/~arobinso
     driver status: Will be supported by Linux kernel (1998).  Also
     supported by author
     driver location: http://www.nyx.net/~arobinso and included in Linux
     kernel since version 2.1.15.  Setserial 2.15+ supports.

  o  Intelligent Serial Interface by Multi-Tech Systems
     PCI: 4 or 8 port.  ISA 8 port. DTE speed 460.8K
     <http://www.multitech.com/products/>


  o  Maxpeed SS (Toshiba; 4, 8 and 16 ports)
     contact: info@maxpeed.com or http://www.maxpeed.com
     driver status: supported by Maxpeed
     driver location: ftp://maxpeed.com/pub/ss


  o  Moxa C218 (12MHz 80286; 8 ports),
     Moxa C320 (40MHz TMS320; 8 - 32 ports)
     contact: info@moxa.com.tw or http://www.moxa.com.tw
     driver status: supported by Moxa
     driver location: ftp://ftp.moxa.com.tw/drivers/c218-320/linux


  o  SDL RISCom/8 (Cirrus Logic CD180; 8 ports)
     contact: sales@sdlcomm.com or http://www.sdlcomm.com
     driver status: supported by SDL
     driver location: ftp://ftp.sdlcomm.com/pub/drivers


  o  Specialix SX (25MHz T225; 8? - 32 ports),
     SIO/XIO (20 MHz Zilog Z280; 4 - 32 ports)
     contact:  <mailto:R.E.Wolff@BitWizard.nl>,
     <http://members.aa.net/~swear/pedia/kerneldocs/specialix.txt>
     driver status: BETA / Supported by Specialix
     driver location:  <http://www.BitWizard.nl/specialix/>
     old driver location:
     <ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/kernel/patches/serial>

  o  Stallion EasyIO-4 (4 ports), EasyIO-8 (8 ports), and
     EasyConnection (8 - 32 ports) - each with Cirrus Logic CD1400
     UARTs,
     Stallion (8MHz 80186 CPU; 8 or 16 ports),
     Brumby (10/12 MHz 80186 CPU; 4, 8 or 16 ports),
     ONboard (16MHz 80186 CPU; 4, 8, 12, 16 or 32 ports),
     EasyConnection 8/64 (25MHz 80186 CPU; 8 - 64 ports)
     contact: sales@stallion.com or http://www.stallion.com
     driver status: supported by Stallion
     driver location: ftp://ftp.stallion.com/drivers/ata5/Linux and
     included in linux kernel since 1.3.27



  A review of Comtrol, Cyclades, Digi, and Stallion products was printed
  in the June 1995 issue of the Linux Journal.  The article is available
  at http://www.ssc.com/lj/issue14.


  6.  Configuring the Serial Port

  6.1.  PCI Bus Not Yet Supported

  The kernel 2.2 serial driver contains no support for the PCI bus.  But
  kernels 2.3 and 2.4 will eventually support some PCI serial cards (and
  modem cards).  Most PCI cards need special support in the driver.  The
  driver will read the id number digitally stored on the card to
  determine how (or if) to support the card.  If you have a PCI card
  which you are convinced is not a winmodem but it will not work, you
  can help in attempting to create a driver for it.  To do this you'll
  need to contact the maintainer of the serial driver, Theodore (Ted) Y.
  Ts'o.

  You will need to email him a copy of the output of "lspci -vv" with
  full information about the model and manufacturer of the PCI modem (or
  serial port).  Then he will try to point you to a test driver which
  might work for it.  You will then need to get it, compile it and
  possibly recompile your kernel.  Then you will test the driver to see
  if it works OK for you and report the results to Ted Ts'o.  If you are
  willing to do all the above (and this is the latest version of this
  HOWTO) then email the needed info to him at:  <mailto:tytso@mit.edu>.

  PCI modems are not well standardized.  Some use main memory for I/O
  with the PC (ISA ones use the I/O address space for this).  Some
  require special enabling of the IRQ.  The output of "lspci" can help
  determine if one can be supported.  If the details are not too complex
  I may find them and put them here in a future revision.


  6.2.  Configuring Overview

  In many cases, configuring will happen automatically and you have
  nothing to do.  But sometimes you need to configure (or just want to
  check out the configuration).  If so, first you need to know about the
  two parts to configuring the serial port under Linux:

  The first part (low-level configuring) is assigning it an IO address,
  IRQ, and name (such as ttyS2).  This IO-IRQ pair must be set in both
  the hardware and told to the serial driver.  We might just call this
  "io-irq" configuring for short.  The setserial is used to tell the
  driver.  PnP methods, jumpers, etc, are used to set the hardware.
  Details will be supplied later.  If you need to configure but don't
  understand certain details it's easy to get into trouble.

  The second part (high-level configuring) is assigning it a speed (such
  as 38.4K bits/sec), selecting flow control, etc.  This is often done
  by communication programs such as PPP, minicom, or by getty (which you
  may run on the port so that others may log into your computer).
  However you will need to tell these programs what speed you want, etc.
  by using a menu or a configuration file.  This high-level configuring
  may also be done with the stty program.  stty is also useful to view
  the current status if you're having problems.  See also the section
  ``Stty'' When Linux starts, some effort is made to detect and
  configure (low-level) a few serial ports.  Exactly what happens
  depends on your BIOS, hardware, Linux distribution, etc.  If the
  serial ports work OK, there may be no need for you to do any
  configuring.  Application programs often do the high-level configuring
  but you may need to supply them with the required information.  With
  Plug-and-Play serial ports (often built into an internal modem), the
  situation has become more complex.  Here are cases when you need to do
  low-level configuring (set IRQ and IO addresses):


  o  Plan to use more than 2 serial ports

  o  Installing a new serial port (such as an internal modem)

  o  Having problems with serial port(s)

  For kernel 2.2+ you may be able to use more that 2 serial ports
  without low-level configuring by sharing interrupts.  This only works
  if the serial hardware supports it and may be no easier than low-level
  configuring.  See ``Interrupt sharing and Kernels 2.2+''

  The low-level configuring (setting the IRQ and IO address) seems to
  cause people more trouble (than high-level), although for many it's
  fully automatic and there is no configuring to be done.  Thus most all
  of this section is on that topic.  Until the serial driver knows the
  correct IRQ and IO address the port will not work at all.  It may not
  even be found by Linux.  Even if it can be found, it may work
  extremely slow if the IRQ is wrong.  See ``Extremely Slow: Text
  appears on the screen slowly after long delays''.


  In the Wintel world, the IO address and IRQ are called "resources" and
  we are thus configuring certain resources.  But there are many other
  types of "resources" so the term has many other meanings.  In review,
  the low-level configuring consists of putting two values (an IRQ
  number and IO address) into two places:


  1. the device driver (often by running "setserial" at boot-time)

  2. memory registers of the serial port hardware itself

  You may watch the start-up (= boot-time) messages.  They are usually
  correct.  But if you're having problems, there's a good chance that
  some of these messages don't show the true configuration of the
  hardware (and they are not supposed to).  See ``I/O Address & IRQ:
  Boot-time messages''.


  6.3.  Common mistakes made re low-level configuring

  Here are some common mistakes people make:

  o  setserial command: They run it (without the "autoconfig" option)
     and think it has checked out the hardware (it hasn't).

  o  setserial messages:  They see them displayed on the screen at boot-
     time, and erroneously think that the result shows how their
     hardware is actually configured.

  o  /proc/interrupts: When their serial device isn't in use they don't
     see its interrupt there, and erroneously conclude that their serial
     port can't be found (or doesn't have an interrupt set).

  o  /proc/ioports: People think this shows the hardware configuration
     when it only shows about the same data (possibly erroneous) as
     setserial.


  6.4.  I/O Address & IRQ: Boot-time messages

  In many cases your ports will automatically get low-level configured
  at boot-time (but not always correctly).  To see what is happening,
  look at the start-up messages on the screen.  Don't neglect to check
  the messages from the BIOS before Linux is loaded (no examples shown
  here).  These BIOS messages may be frozen by pressing the Pause key.
  Use Shift-PageUp to go back to all the messages after they have flash
  by.  Shift-PageDown will scroll in the opposite direction.  The dmesg
  command may be used at any time to view some of the messages but it
  often misses important ones.  Here's an example of the start-up
  messages (as of mid 1999).  Note that ttyS00 is the same as
  /dev/ttyS0.















  At first you see what was detected (but the irq is only a wild guess):

  Serial driver version 4.27 with no serial options enabled
  ttyS00 at 0x03f8 (irq = 4) is a 16550A
  ttyS01 at 0x02f8 (irq = 3) is a 16550A
  ttyS02 at 0x03e8 (irq = 4) is a 16550A

  Later you see what was saved, but it's not necessarily correct either:

  Loading the saved-state of the serial devices...
  /dev/ttyS0 at 0x03f8 (irq = 4) is a 16550A
  /dev/ttyS1 at 0x02f8 (irq = 3) is a 16550A
  /dev/ttyS2 at 0x03e8 (irq = 5) is a 16550A




  Note that there is a slight disagreement: The first message shows
  ttyS2 at irq=4 while the second shows it at irq=5.  Your may only have
  the first message.  In most cases the last message is the correct one.
  But if your having trouble it may be misleading.  Before reading the
  explanation of all of this complexity in the rest of this section, you
  might just try using your serial port and see if it works OK.  If so
  it may not be essential to read further.

  The second message is from the setserial program being run at boot-
  time.  It shows what the device driver thinks is the correct
  configuration.  But this too could be wrong.  For example, the irq
  could actually be set to irq=8 in the hardware (both messages wrong).
  The irq=5 could be there because someone incorrectly put this into a
  configuration file (or the like).  The fact that Linux sometimes gets
  IRQs wrong is because it doesn't probe for IRQs.  It just assumes the
  "standard" ones (first message) or accepts what you told it when you
  configured it (second message).  Neither of these is necessarily
  correct.  If the serial driver has the wrong IRQ the serial port is
  very slow or doesn't seem to work at all.

  The first message is a result of Linux probing the serial ports but it
  doesn't probe for IRQs.  If a port shows up here it exists but the IRQ
  may be wrong.  Linux doesn't check IRQs because doing so is not
  foolproof.  It just assumes the IRQs are as shown because they are the
  "standard" values.  Your may check them manually with setserial using
  the autoconfig and auto_irq options but this isn't guaranteed to be
  correct.

  The data shown by the BIOS messages (which you see at first) is what
  is set in the hardware.  If your serial port is Plug-and-Play PnP then
  it's possible that the isapnp will run and change these settings.
  Look for messages about this after Linux starts.  The last serial port
  message shown in the example above should agree with the BIOS messages
  (as possibly modified by isapnp).  If they don't agree then you either
  need to change the setting in the port hardware or use setserial to
  tell the driver what is actually set in the hardware.

  Also, if you have Plug-and-Play (PnP) serial ports, Linux will not
  find them unless the IRQ and IO has been set inside the hardware by
  Plug-and-Play software.  This is a common reason why the start-up
  messages do not show a serial port that physically exists.  The PC
  hardware (a PnP BIOS) may automatically low-level configure this.  PnP
  configuring will be explained later.


  6.5.  What is the current IO address and IRQ of my Serial Port ?

  The previous section indicated how to attempt to do this by looking at
  the start-up messages.  If they give you sufficient info then you may
  not need to read this section.  If they don't then there are some
  other ways to look into this.

  There are really two answers to the question "What is my IO and IRQ?"
  1. What the device driver thinks has been set (This is what setserial
  usually sets and shows).  2. What is actually set in the hardware.
  They both should be the same.  If they're not it spells trouble since
  the driver has incorrect info on the physical serial port.  If the
  driver has the wrong IO address it will try to send data to a non-
  existing serial port --or even worse, to an actual device that is not
  a serial port.  If it has the wrong IRQ the driver will not get
  interrupt service requests from the serial port, resulting in a very
  slow or no response.  See ``Extremely Slow: Text appears on the screen
  slowly after long delays''.  If it has the wrong model of UART there
  is also apt to be trouble.  To determine if both I0-IRQ pairs are
  identical you must find out how they are set in both the driver and
  the hardware.


  6.5.1.  What does the device driver think?

  This is easy to find out.  Just look at the start-up messages or type
  "setserial -g /dev/ttyS*".   If everything works OK then what it tells
  you is likely also set in the hardware.  There are some other ways to
  find this info by looking at "files" in the /proc directory.  An
  important reason for understanding these other ways is to warn you
  that they only show what the device driver thinks.  Some people view
  certain "files" in the /proc directory and erroneously think that what
  they see is set in the hardware but "it ain't necessarily so".

  /proc/ioports will show the IO addresses that the drivers are using.
  /proc/interrupts shows the IRQs that are used by drivers of currently
  running processes (that have devices open).  Note that in both cases
  above you are only seeing what the driver thinks and not necessarily
  what is actually set in the hardware.  /proc/interrupts also shows how
  many interrupts have been issued (often thousands) for each device.
  You can get a clue from this because if you see a large number of
  interrupts that have been issued it means that there is a piece of
  hardware somewhere that is using that interrupt.  Sometimes a showing
  of just a few interrupts doesn't mean that that interrupt is actually
  being physically generated by any serial port.  Thus if you see almost
  no interrupts for a port that you're trying to use, that interrupt
  might not be set in the hardware and it implies that the driver is
  using the wrong interrupt.  To view /proc/interrupts to check on a
  program that you're currently running (such as "minicom") you need to
  keep the program running while you view it.  To do this, try to jump
  to a shell without exiting the program.


  6.5.2.  What is set in my serial port hardware ?

  How do you find out what IO address and IRQ are actually set in the
  device hardware?  Perhaps the BIOS messages will tell you some info
  before Linux starts booting.  Use the shift-PageUp key to step back
  thru the boot-time messages and look at the very first ones which are
  from the BIOS.  This is how it was before Linux started.  Setserial
  can't change it but isapnp or pciutils can.

  One crude method is try probing with setserial using the "autoconfig"
  option.  You'll need to guess the addresses to probe at.  See ``What
  is Setserial''.  For a PCI serial port, use the "lspci" command (for
  kernels <2.2 look at /proc/pci).  If your serial port is is Plug-and-
  Play see the next two subsections.

  For a port set with jumpers, its how the jumpers were set.  If the
  port is not Plug-and-Play (PnP) but has been setup by using a DOS
  program then it's set at whatever the person who ran that program set
  it to.


  6.5.3.  What is set in my PnP serial port hardware ?

  PnP ports don't store their configuration in the hardware when the
  power is turned off.  This is in contrast to Jumpers (non-PnP) which
  remain the same with the power off.  If you have an ISA PnP port, it
  can reach a state where it doesn't have any IO address or IRQ and is
  in effect disabled.  It should still be possible to find the port
  using the pnpdump program.

  For Plug-and-Play (PnP) on the ISA bus one may try the pnpdump program
  (part of isapnptools).  If you use the --dumpregs option then it
  should tell you the actual IO address and IRQ set in the port.  The
  address it "trys" is not the device's IO address, but a special

  For PnP ports checking on how it's configured under DOS/Windows may
  not be of much help.  Windows stores its configuration info in its
  Registry which is not used by Linux.  It may supply the BIOS's non-
  volatile memory with some info but it may not be kept in sync with the
  current Window configuration in the Registry ??  If you let a PnP BIOS
  automatically do the configuring when you start Linux (and have told
  the BIOS that you don't have a PnP operating system when running
  Linux) then Linux should use whatever configuration is in the BIOS's
  non-volatile memory.


  6.6.  Choosing Serial IRQs

  If you have a true Plug-and-Play set up where either the OS or a PnP
  BIOS configures all your devices, then you don't choose your IRQs.
  PnP determines what it thinks is best and assigns them.  But if you
  use the tools in Linux for Plug-and-Play (isapnp and pcitools) then
  you have to choose.  If you already know what IRQ you want to use you
  could skip this section except that you may want to know that IRQ 0
  has a special use (see the following paragraph).


  6.6.1.  IRQ 0 is not an IRQ

  While IRQ 0 is actually the timer (in hardware) it has a special
  meaning for setting a serial port with setserial.  It tells the driver
  that there is no interrupt for the port and the driver then will use
  polling methods.  This is quite inefficient but can be tried if there
  is an interrupt conflict or mis-set interrupt.  The advantage of
  assigning this is that you don't need to know what interrupt is set in
  the hardware.  It should be used only as a temporary expedient until
  you are able to find a real interrupt to use.


  6.6.2.  Interrupt sharing and Kernels 2.2+

  The general rule is that every device should use a unique IRQ and not
  share them.  But there are situations where sharing is permitted such
  as with most multi-port boards.  Even when it is permitted, it may not
  be as efficient since every time a shared interrupt is given a check
  must be made to determine where it came from.  Thus if it's feasible,
  it's nice to allocate every device it's own interrupt.

  Prior to kernel 2.2, serial IRQs could be shared with each other only
  for most multiport boards.  Starting with kernel 2.2 serial IRQs may
  be sometimes shared between all serial ports.  In order for sharing to
  work in 2.2 the kernel must have been compiled with
  CONFIG_SERIAL_SHARE_IRQ, and the serial port hardware must support
  sharing (so that if two serial cards put different voltages on the
  same interrupt wire, only the voltage that means "this is an
  interrupt" will prevail).  Thus even if you have 2.2, it may be best
  to avoid sharing.


  6.6.3.  What IRQs to choose?

  The serial hardware often has only a limited number of IRQs it can be
  set at.  Also you don't want IRQ conflicts.  So there may not be much
  of a choice.  Your PC may normally come with ttyS0 and ttyS2 at IRQ 4,
  and ttyS1 and ttyS3 at IRQ 3.  Looking at /proc/interrupts will show
  which IRQs are being used by programs currently running.  You likely
  don't want to use one of these.  Before IRQ 5 was used for sound
  cards, it was often used for a serial port.

  Here is how Greg (original author of Serial-HOWTO) set his up in
  /etc/rc.d/rc.serial.  rc.serial is a file (shell script) which runs at
  start-up (it may have a different name of location).  For versions of
  "setserial" after 2.15 it's not always done this way anymore but this
  example does show the choice of IRQs.



       /sbin/setserial /dev/ttyS0 irq 3        # my serial mouse
       /sbin/setserial /dev/ttyS1 irq 4        # my Wyse dumb terminal
       /sbin/setserial /dev/ttyS2 irq 5        # my Zoom modem
       /sbin/setserial /dev/ttyS3 irq 9        # my USR modem




  Standard IRQ assignments:

          IRQ  0    Timer channel 0 (May mean "no interrupt".  See below.)
          IRQ  1    Keyboard
          IRQ  2    Cascade for controller 2
          IRQ  3    Serial port 2
          IRQ  4    Serial port 1
          IRQ  5    Parallel port 2, Sound card
          IRQ  6    Floppy diskette
          IRQ  7    Parallel port 1
          IRQ  8    Real-time clock
          IRQ  9    Redirected to IRQ2
          IRQ 10    not assigned
          IRQ 11    not assigned
          IRQ 12    not assigned
          IRQ 13    Math coprocessor
          IRQ 14    Hard disk controller 1
          IRQ 15    Hard disk controller 2




  There is really no Right Thing to do when choosing interrupts.  Just
  make sure it isn't being used by the motherboard, or any other boards.
  2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 10, 11, 12 or 15 are possible choices.  Note that IRQ 2
  is the same as IRQ 9.  You can call it either 2 or 9, the serial
  driver is very understanding.  If you have a very old serial board it
  may not be able to use IRQs 8 and above.

  Make sure you don't use IRQs 1, 6, 8, 13 or 14!  These are used by
  your motherboard.  You will make her very unhappy by taking her IRQs.
  When you are done, double-check /proc/interrupts when programs that
  use interrupts are being run and make sure there are no conflicts.

  6.7.  Choosing Addresses --Video card conflict with ttyS3

  The IO address of the IBM 8514 video board (and others like it) is
  allegedly 0x?2e8 where ? is 2, 4, 8, or 9.  This may conflict (but
  shouldn't it the serial port is well designed) with the IO address of
  ttyS3 at 0x02e8 if the serial port ignores the leading 0 hex digit
  (many do).  That is bad news if you try to use ttyS3 at this IO
  address.

  In most cases you should use the default addresses if feasible.
  Addresses shown represent the first address of an 8-byte range.  For
  example 3f8 is really the range 3f8-3ff.  Each serial device (as well
  as other types of devices that use IO addresses) needs its own unique
  address range.  There should be no overlaps (conflicts).  Here are the
  default addresses for the serial ports:



       ttyS0 address 0x3f8
       ttyS1 address 0x2f8
       ttyS2 address 0x3e8
       ttyS3 address 0x2e8





  6.8.  Set IO Address & IRQ in the hardware (mostly for PnP)

  After it's set in the hardware don't forget to insure that it also
  gets set in the driver by using setserial.  For non-PnP serial ports
  they are either set in hardware by jumpers or by running a DOS program
  ("jumperless") to set them (it may disable PnP).  The rest of this
  subsection is only for PnP serial ports.  Here's a list of the
  possible methods of configuring PnP serial ports:


  o  Using a PnP BIOS CMOS setup menu (usually only for external devices
     on ttyS0 (Com1) and ttyS1 (Com2))

  o  Letting a PnP BIOS automatically configure a PnP serial port See
     ``Using a PnP BIOS to I0-IRQ Configure''

  o  Doing nothing if you have both a PnP serial port and a PnP Linux
     operating system (see Plug-and-Play-HOWTO).

  o  Using isapnp for a PnP serial port non-PCI)

  o  Using pciutils (pcitools) for the PCI bus

  The IO address and IRQ must be set (by PnP) in their registers each
  time the system is powered on since PnP hardware doesn't remember how
  it was set when the power is shut off.  A simple way to do this is to
  let a PnP BIOS know that you don't have a PnP OS and the BIOS will
  automatically do this each time you start.  This might cause problems
  in Windows (which is a PnP OS) if you start Windows with the BIOS
  thinking that Windows is not a PnP OS.  See Plug-and-Play-HOWTO.

  Plug-and-Play was designed to automate this io-irq configuring, but
  for Linux at present, it has made life more complicated.  The standard
  kernels for Linux don't support plug-and-play very well.  If you use a
  patch to the Linux kernel to covert it to a plug-and-play operating
  system, then all of the above should be handled automatically by the
  OS.  But when you want to use this to automate configuring devices
  other that the serial port, you may find that you'll still have to
  configure the drivers manually since many Linux drivers are not
  written to support a Linux PnP OS.  If you use isapnptools or the BIOS
  for configuring plug-and-play this will only put the two values into
  the registers of the serial port section of the modem card and you
  will likely still need to set up setserial.  None of this is easy or
  very well documented as of early 1999.  See Plug-and-Play-HOWTO and
  the isapnptools FAQ.


  6.8.1.  Using a PnP BIOS to I0-IRQ Configure

  While the explanation of how to use a PnP OS or isapnp for io-irq
  configuring should come with such software, this is not the case if
  you want to let a PnP BIOS do such configuring.  Not all PnP BIOS can
  do this.  The BIOS usually has a CMOS menu for setting up the first
  two serial ports.  This menu may be hard to find and for an "Award"
  BIOS it was found under "chipset features setup"  There is often
  little to choose from.  Unless otherwise indicated in a menu, these
  first two ports normally get set at the standard IO addresses and
  IRQs.  See ``Serial Port Device Names & Numbers''

  Whether you like it or not, when you start up a PC a PnP BIOS starts
  to do PnP (io-irq) configuring of hardware devices.  It may do the job
  partially and turn the rest over to a PnP OS (which you probably don't
  have) or if thinks you don't have a PnP OS it may fully configure all
  the PnP devices but not configure the device drivers.  This is what
  you want but it's not always easy to figure out exactly what the PnP
  BIOS has done.

  If you tell the BIOS that you don't have a PnP OS, then the PnP BIOS
  should do the configuring of all PnP serial ports --not just the first
  two.  An indirect way to control what the BIOS does (if you have
  Windows 9x on the same PC) is to "force" a configuration under
  Windows.  See Plug-and-Play-HOWTO and search for "forced".  It's
  easier to use the CMOS BIOS menu which may override what you "forced"
  under Windows.  There could be a BIOS option that can set or disable
  this "override" capability.

  If you add a new PnP device, the BIOS should change its PnP
  configuration to accommodate it.  It could even change the io-irq of
  existing devices if required to avoid any conflicts.  For this
  purpose, it keeps a list of non-PnP devices provided that you have
  told the BIOS how these non-PnP devices are io-irq configured.  One
  way to tell the BIOS this is by running a program called ICU under
  DOS/Windows.

  But how do you find out what the BIOS has done so that you set up the
  device drivers with this info?  The BIOS itself may provide some info,
  either in it's setup menus of via messages on the screen when you turn
  on your computer.  See ``What is set in my serial port hardware?''

  6.9.  Giving the IRQ and IO Address to Setserial

  Once you've set the IRQ and IO address in the hardware (or arranged
  for it to be done by PnP) you also need to insure that the "setserial"
  command is run each time you start Linux.  See the subsection ``Boot-
  time Configuration''



  6.10.  High-level Configuring: stty, etc.

  As a rule, your application program will do most (or all) of this.
  The command which does it is stty.  See ``Stty''



  6.10.1.  Configuring Flow Control: Hardware Flow Control is Best

  See ``Flow Control'' for an explanation of it.  It's usually better to
  use hardware flow control rather than software flow control using
  Xon/Xoff.  To use full hardware flow control you must normally have
  two wires for it in the cable between the serial port and the device.
  If the device is on a card, then it should always be possible to use
  hardware flow control.

  Many applications (and the getty program) give you an option regarding
  flow control and will set it for you.  It might even set hardware flow
  control by default.  Like the IRQ and IO address, it must be set both
  in the serial driver and the hardware connected to the serial port.
  How it's set into the hardware is hardware dependent.  Often there is
  a certain "init string" you send to the hardware device via the serial
  port from your PC.  For a modem, the communication program should set
  it in both places.

  If a program you use doesn't set flow control in the serial driver,
  then you may do it yourself using the stty command.  Since the driver
  doesn't remember the setting after you stop Linux, you could put the
  stty command in a file that runs at start-up or when you login (such
  as /etc/profile for the bash shell).  Heres what you would add for
  hardware flow control for port ttyS2:




       stty crtscts < /dev/ttyS2
       or for stty version >= 1.17:
       stty -F /dev/ttyS2 crtscts





  crtscts stands for a Control setting to use the RTS and CTS pins of
  the serial port for hardware flow control.  The upper case letters of
  the last sentence spell: crtscts.


  7.  Serial Port Devices /dev/ttyS2, etc.

  For creating devices in the device directory see

  ``Creating Devices In the /dev directory''


  7.1.  Serial Port Device Names & Numbers

  Devices in Linux have major and minor numbers.  Each serial port may
  have 2 possible names in the /dev directory: ttyS and cua.   Their
  drivers behave slightly differently.  The cua device is deprecated and
  will not be used in the future.  See the Modem-HOWTO section: "The cua
  Device".

  Dos/Windows use the COM name while the setserial program uses tty00,
  tty01, etc.  Don't confuse these with dev/tty0, dev/tty1, etc.  which
  are used for the console (your PC monitor) but are not serial ports.
  The dos names (COM1, etc.) and IO address is shown below for the
  "standard" case (but yours could be different).





         set-                                              IO
  dos   serial          major minor         major minor  address
  COM1  tty00  /dev/ttyS0  4,  64;  /dev/cua0  5,  64      3F8
  COM2  tty01  /dev/ttyS1  4,  65;  /dev/cua1  5,  65      2F8
  COM3  tty02  /dev/ttyS2  4,  66;  /dev/cua2  5,  66      3E8
  COM4  tty03  /dev/ttyS3  4,  67;  /dev/cua3  5,  67      2E8




  Note that all distributions should come with ttyS devices (and cua
  devices until cua is finally abolished).  You can verify this by typ-
  ing:



       linux% ls -l /dev/cua*
       linux% ls -l /dev/ttyS*





  7.2.  Link ttySN to /dev/modem ?

  On some installations, two extra devices will be created, /dev/modem
  for your modem and /dev/mouse for your mouse.  Both of these are
  symbolic links to the appropriate device in /dev which you specified
  during the installation (unless you have a bus mouse, then /dev/mouse
  will point to the bus mouse device).

  There has been some discussion on the merits of /dev/mouse and
  /dev/modem.  The use of these links is discouraged.  In particular, if
  you are planning on using your modem for dialin you may run into
  problems because the lock files may not work correctly if you use
  /dev/modem. Use them if you like, but be sure they point to the right
  device.  However, if you change or remove this link, some applications
  might need reconfiguration.



  7.3.  Notes For Multiport Boards

  For board addresses, and IRQs, look at the rc.serial or
  /etc/rc.boot/0setserial that comes with the setserial program.  It has
  a lot of detail on multiport boards, including I/O addresses and
  device names.


  7.4.  Creating Devices In the /dev directory

  If you don't have a device, you will have to create it with the mknod
  command.  Example, suppose you needed to create devices for ttyS0:


       linux# mknod -m 666 /dev/cua0 c 5 64
       linux# mknod -m 666 /dev/ttyS0 c 4 64




  You can use the MAKEDEV script, which lives in /dev.  See the man page
  for it.  This simplifies the making of devices.  For example, if you
  needed to make the devices for ttyS0 you would type:


  linux# cd /dev
  linux# ./MAKEDEV ttyS0




  This handles the devices creation and should set the correct permis-
  sions.


  8.  Interesting Programs You Should Know About

  Most info on getty has been moved to Modem-HOWTO with a little info on
  the use of getty with directly connected terminals now found in Text-
  Terminal-HOWTO.


  8.1.  Serial Monitoring/Diagnostics Programs

  A few Linux programs will monitor various modem control lines and
  indicate if they are positive (1 or green) or negative (0 or red).

  o  modemstat (Only works correctly on Linux PC consoles.  Status
     monitored in a tiny window.  Color-coded and compact.  Must kill
     process to quit.)

  o  statserial (Info displayed on entire screen)

  o  serialmon (Doesn't monitor RTS, CTS, DSR but logs other functions)

     You may already have them.  If not, download them from Serial
     Software <http://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/serial/>.  As of
     June 1998, I know of no diagnostic program in Linux for the serial
     port.


  8.2.  Changing Interrupt Priority



  o  irqtune will give serial port interrupts higher priority to improve
     performance.

  o  hdparm for hard-disk tuning may help some more.


  8.3.  What is Setserial ?

  8.3.1.  Introduction

  Don't ever use setserial with Laptops (PCMCIA).  setserial is a
  program which allows you to tell the device driver software the I/O
  address of the serial port, which interrupt (IRQ) is set in the port's
  hardware, what type of UART you have, etc.  It can also show how the
  driver is currently set.  In addition, it can  probe the hardware (if
  certain options are given).

  If you only have one or two serial ports, they will usually get set up
  correctly without using setserial.  Otherwise (or if there are
  problems with the serial port) you will likely need to deal with
  setserial.  Besides the manual for setserial, check out info in
  /usr/doc/setserial.../ or the like.  It should tell you how setserial
  is handled in your distribution of Linux.

  Setserial is often run automatically at boot-time by a start-up shell-
  script.  It will only work if the serial module is loaded.  If you
  should for some reason unload the serial module later on, the changes
  previously made by setserial will be forgotten by the kernel (but not
  by /etc/serial.conf).  So setserial must be run again to reestablish
  them.  In addition to running via a start-up script, something akin to
  setserial runs when the serial module is loaded.  Thus when you watch
  the start-up messages on the screen it may look like it ran twice, and
  in fact it has.

  Setserial can set the time that the port will keep operating after
  it's closed (in order to output any characters still in its buffer in
  main RAM).  This is needed at slow baud rates of 1200 or lower.  It's
  also needed at higher speeds if there are a lot of "flow control"
  waits.


  With appropriate options, setserial can probe (at a given I/O address)
  for a serial port but you must guess the I/O address.  If you ask it
  to probe for /dev/ttyS2 for example, it will only probe at the address
  it thinks ttyS2 is at.  If you tell setserial that ttyS2 is at a
  different address, then it will probe at that address, etc.  See
  ``Probing''

  Setserial does not set either IRQ's nor I/O addresses in the serial
  port hardware itself.  It's set in the hardware either by jumpers or
  by plug-and-play.  You must tell setserial these identical values that
  have been set in the hardware.  Do not just invent some values that
  you think would be nice to use and then tell them to setserial.
  However, if you know the I/O address but don't know the IRQ you may
  command setserial to attempt to determine the IRQ.

  You can see a list of possible commands to use (but not the one-letter
  options such as -v for verbose --which you should normally use when
  troubleshooting) by just typing setserial with no arguments.  Note
  that setserial calls an I/O address a "port".  If you type:

  setserial-g /dev/ttyS*


  you'll see some info about how that device driver is configured for
  your ports.  Add a "v" to the option "-g" to see more.  But this
  doesn't tell you if the hardware actually has these values set in it.
  If fact, you can run setserial and assign a purely fictitious I/O
  address, any IRQ, and whatever uart type you would like to have.  Then
  the next time you type "setserial ..." it will display these bogus
  values without complaint.  Note that assignments made by setserial are
  lost when the PC is powered down so it is usually run automatically
  somewhere each time that Linux is booted.


  8.3.2.  Probing

  In order to try to find out if you have a certain piece of serial
  hardware you must first know (or guess) its I/O address (or the device
  driver must have an I/O address for it, likely previously set by
  setserial).  To try to detect the physical hardware use the -v
  (verbose) and autoconfig command to setserial.  If the resulting
  message shows a uart type such as 16550A, then you're OK.  If instead
  it shows "unknown" for the uart type, then there is supposedly no
  serial port at all at that I/O address.  Some cheap serial ports don't
  identify themselves correctly so if you see "unknown" you still might
  have a serial port there.

  Besides auto-probing for uart type, setserial can auto-probe for IRQ's
  but this doesn't always work right either.  In versions of setserial
  >= 2.15, your last probe test may be saved and put into the
  configuration file /etc/serial.conf which will be used next time you
  start Linux.  The script that runs setserial at boot-time does not
  usually probe, but you could change it so that it does.  See the next
  section.


  8.3.3.  Can Linux Configure The Serial Devices Automagically?

  Yes, but ...  Your distribution may already do this on startup.  But
  you may want to customize it.  It's easy to do for setserial < 2.15.
  Just add some lines to the file that runs setserial on start-up.  See
  ``Old configuration method: edit a script''   For example, for ttyS3
  you would add:



       /sbin/setserial /dev/ttyS3 auto_irq skip_test autoconfig




  to the file that runs setserial on startup.  Do this for every serial
  port you want to auto configure.  Be sure to give a device name that
  really does exist on your machine.  In some cases this will not work
  right due to the hardware so you may want to assign it an irq and/or a
  uart type.  For example


       /sbin/setserial /dev/ttyS3 irq 5 uart 16550A  skip_test





  For versions >= 2.15 (provided your distribution implemented the
  change, Redhat didn't) it's much harder to do since the file that runs
  setserial on startup, /etc/init.d/setserial or the like was not
  intended to be edited by the user.  There may be no helpful comments
  in it like there were in earlier versions.


  8.3.4.  Boot-time Configuration

  When the kernel loads the serial module (or if the "module" is built
  into the kernel) then only ttyS{0-3} are auto-detected and the driver
  is set to IRQs 4 and 3 (regardless of what the hardware is actually
  set at).  You see this as a boot-time message just like as if
  setserial had been run..  If you use 3 or more ports, this may result
  in IRQ conflicts.

  To fix such conflicts by telling setserial the true IRQs (or for other
  reasons) there may be a file somewhere that runs setserial again.
  This happens early at boot-time before any process uses the serial
  port.  In fact, your distribution may have set things up so that the
  setserial program runs automatically from a start-up script at boot-
  time.  More info about how to handle this situation should be found in
  /usr/doc/setserial.../ or the like.



  8.3.5.  New configuration method using /etc/serial.conf

  Prior to setserial version 2.15, the way to configure setserial was to
  manually edit the shell-script that ran setserial at boot-time.
  Starting with version 2.15 (1999) of setserial this shell-script is
  not edited but instead gets its data from a configuration file:
  /etc/serial.conf.  Furthermore not even serial.conf is intended to be
  edited.  Instead just use setserial on the command line.

  Normally, what you changed with the setserial command is saved to the
  configuration file (serial.conf) when you shutdown (normally) or
  reboot.  This only works if "###AUTOSAVE### or the like is on the
  first line of serial.conf.  If you should use setserial experimentally
  and it doesn't work out right, then don't forget to redo it so that
  the experimental settings don't get saved by mistake.  The file most
  commonly used to run setserial at boot-time (in conformance with the
  configuration file) is now /etc/init.d/setserial (Debian) or
  /etc/init.d/serial (Redhat), or etc.,  but it also should not normally
  be edited.

  To disable a port, use setserial to set it to "uart none".  The format
  of /etc/serial.conf appears to be just like that of the parameters
  placed after "setserial" on the command line with one line for each
  port.  If you don't use autosave, you may edit /etc/serial.conf
  manually.  For 2.15, the Debian distribution installs the system with
  autosave enabled, but Redhat 6.0 just had a file
  /usr/doc/setserial-2.15/rc.serial which you have to move to
  /etc/init.d/.

  BUG: As of July 1999 there is a bug/problem since with ###AUTOSAVE###
  only the setserial parameters displayed by "setserial -G /dev/ttyS?"
  (where ? = 0, 1, 2, ...) get saved but the other parameters don't get
  saved.  This will only affect a small minority of users since the
  parameters not saved are seldom used anyway.  It's been reported as a
  bug and may be fixed by now.

  In order to force the current settings set by setserial to be saved to
  the configuration file (serial.conf) without shutting down, do what
  normally happens when you shutdown: Run the shell-script
  /etc/init.d/{set}serial stop.  The "stop" command will save the
  current configuration but the serial ports still keep working OK.

  I some cases you may wind up with both the old and new configuration
  methods installed but hopefully only one of them runs at boot-time.
  Debian labeled obsolete files with "...pre-2.15".


  8.3.6.  Old configuration method: edit a script

  Prior to 2.15 (1999) there was no /etc/serial.conf file to configure
  setserial.   Thus you need to find the file that runs "setserial" at
  boot time and edit it.  If it doesn't exist, you need to create one
  (or place the commands in a file that runs early at boot-time).   If
  such a file is currently being used it's likely somewhere in the /etc
  directory-tree.  But Redhat <6.0 has supplied it in
  /usr/doc/setserial/ although you need to move it to the /etc tree
  before using it.   You might use "locate" to try to find such a file.
  For example, you could type: locate "*serial*".

  What you are looking for could be named  rc.serial, or 0setserial
  (Debian).  If such a file is supplied, it should contain a number of
  commented-out examples.  By uncommenting some of these and/or
  modifying them, you should be able to set things up correctly.  Make
  sure that you are using a valid path for setserial, and a valid device
  name.  You could do a test by executing this file manually (just type
  its name as the super-user) to see if it works right.  Testing like
  this is a lot faster than doing repeated reboots to get it right.  Of
  course you can also test a single setserial command by just typing it
  on the command line.

  The script /etc/rc.d/rc.serial was commonly used in the past.  The
  Debian distribution used /etc/rc.boot/0setserial.  Another file once
  used is /etc/rc.d/rc.local but it's not a good idea to use this since
  it may not be run early enough.  It's been reported that other
  processes may try to open the serial port before rc.local runs
  resulting in serial communication failure.


  8.3.7.  IRQs

  By default, both ttyS0 and ttyS2 share IRQ 4, while ttyS0 and ttyS3
  share IRQ 3.  But sharing serial interrupts is not permitted unless
  you: 1. have kernel 2.2 or better, and 2. you've complied in support
  for this, and 3. your serial hardware supports it.  See

  ``Interrupt sharing and Kernels 2.2+''

  If you only have two serial ports, ttyS0 and ttyS1, you're still OK
  since IRQ sharing conflicts don't exist for non-existent devices.

  If you add an internal modem and retain ttyS0 and ttyS1, then you
  should attempt to find an unused IRQ and set it both on your serial
  port (or modem card) and then use setserial to assign it to your
  device driver.  If IRQ 5 is not being used for a sound card, this may
  be one you can use for a modem.  To set the IRQ in hardware you may
  need to use isapnp, a PnP BIOS, or patch Linux to make it PnP.  To
  help you determine which spare IRQ's you might have, type "man
  setserial" and search for say: "IRQ 11".





  8.4.  Stty

  8.4.1.  Introduction

  stty does much of the configuration of the serial port but since
  application programs (and the getty program) often handle it, you may
  not need to use it much.  It's handy if your having problems or want
  to see how the port is set up.  Try typing ``stty -a'' at your
  terminal/console to see how it's now set.  Also try typing it without
  the -a (all) for a short listing which shows how it's set different
  than normal.  Don't try to learn all the setting unless you want to
  become a serial guru.  Most of the defaults should work OK and some of
  the settings are needed only for certain obsolete dumb terminals made
  in the 1970's (but not much after that)

  Whereas setserial only deals with actual serial ports, stty is used
  both for serial ports and for virtual terminals such as the standard
  Linux text interface at a PC monitor.  For the PC monitor, many of the
  stty settings are meaningless.  Changing the baud rate, etc. doesn't
  appear to actually do anything.

  Here are some of the items stty configures: speed (bits/sec), parity,
  bits/byte, # of stop bits, strip 8th bit?, modem control signals, flow
  control, break signal, end-of-line markers, change case, padding, beep
  if buffer overrun?, echo, allow background tasks to write to
  terminal?, define special (control) characters (such as what key to
  press for interrupt).  See the stty man or info page for more details.
  Also see the man page: termios which covers the same options set by
  stty but (as of mid 1999) covers features which the stty man page
  fails to mention.


  With some implementations of getty (getty_ps package), the commands
  that one would normally give to stty are typed into a getty
  configuration file: /etc/gettydefs.  Even without this configuration
  file, the getty command line may be sufficient to set things up so
  that you don't need stty."')

  One may write C programs which change the stty configuration, etc.
  Looking at some of the documentation for this may help one better
  understand the use of the stty command (and its many possible
  arguments).  Serial-Programming-HOWTO is useful.  The manual page:
  termios contains a description of the C-language structure (of type
  termios) which stores the stty configuration in computer memory.  Many
  of the flag names in this C-structure are almost the same (and do the
  same thing) as the arguments to the stty command.


  8.4.2.  Using stty for a "foreign" terminal

  Using stty to inspect or configure the terminal that you are currently
  using is easy.  Doing it for a different (foreign) terminal or serial
  port is tricky.  For example, let's say you are at the PC monitor
  (tty1) and want to use stty for the serial port ttyS2.  You need to
  use the redirection operator <.  First, be warned that if there is a
  terminal on ttyS2 and a shell running on that terminal, then what you
  see will likely be deceptive and trying to set it will not work.  See
  ``Two Interfaces at a Terminal'' to understand it.

  Type ``stty -a < /dev/ttyS2'' to look at the settings of ttyS2.  Use
  the same redirection operator < to set ttyS2.  This makes ttyS2 the
  standard input to stty.  This gives the stty program a link to the
  "file" ttyS2 so that it may "read" it.  But instead of reading the
  bytes sent to ttyS2 as one might expect, it uses the link to find the
  configuration settings of the port so that it may read or change them.
  Some people try to use ``stty ... > /dev/ttyS2'' to set the terminal.
  This will not do it.  Instead, it takes the message normal displayed
  by the stty command for the terminal you are on (say tty1) and sends
  this message to ttyS2.  But it doesn't change any settings for ttyS2.

  Here's another problem with the redirection operator.  Sometimes when
  trying to use stty, the command hangs and nothing happens (you don't
  get a prompt for a next command even after hitting <return>).  This is
  likely due to the port being stuck because it's waiting for one of the
  modem control lines to be asserted.  For example, unless you've set
  "clocal" to ignore modem control lines, then if no CD signal is
  asserted the port will not open and stty will not work for it.  A
  similar situation seems to exist for hardware flow control.  If the
  cable for the port doesn't even have a conductor for the pin that
  needs to be asserted then there is no easy way to stop the hang.

  One way to try to get out of the above hang is to use a program on the
  port that will force it to operate even if the control lines say not
  to.  Then hopefully this program might set the port so it doesn't need
  the control signal in the future in order to open: clocal or -crtscts.
  To use "minicom" to do this you have to reconfigure minicom for
  another ttyS, etc, and then exit it and restart it.  Since you then
  have to reconfigure minicom again, it may be simpler to just reboot
  the PC.

  Versions starting with 1.17 (still not released as of mid 1999) will
  no longer need to use redirection (<) but instead will use ``stty ...
  -F /dev/ttyS2'' (or --file instead of F) etc.  This should force the
  port to open and avoid the 2nd problem with redirection.


  8.4.3.  Two interfaces at a terminal

  When using a shell (such as bash) with command-line-editing enabled
  there are two different terminal interfaces (what you see when you
  type stty -a).  When you type at the command line you have a temporary
  "raw" interface (or raw mode) where each character is read by the
  command-line-editor as you type it.  Once you hit the <return> key,
  the command-line-editor is exited and the terminal interface is
  changed to the nominal "cooked" interface (cooked mode) for the
  terminal.  This cooked mode lasts until the next prompt is sent to the
  terminal.  Note that one never types anything to this cooked mode but
  what was typed in raw mode becomes cooked mode as soon as one hits the
  <return> key.

  When a prompt is sent to the terminal the terminal goes from "cooked"
  to "raw" mode (just like it does when you start an editor since you
  are starting the command-line editor).  The settings for the "raw"
  mode are based only on the basic settings taken from the "cooked"
  mode.  Raw mode keeps these setting but changes several other settings
  in order to change the mode to "raw".  It is not at all based on the
  settings used in the previous "raw" mode.  Thus if one uses stty to
  change settings for the raw mode, such settings will be lost as soon
  as one hits the <return> key at the terminal that has supposedly been
  "set".

  Now when one types stty to look at the terminal interface, one may
  either get a view of the cooked mode or the raw mode.  You need to
  figure out which one you're looking at.  It you use stty from another
  terminal to deal with a terminal that is displaying a command line,
  then the view is that of the raw mode.  Any changes made will only be
  made to the raw mode and will be lost when someone presses <return> at
  the terminal you tried to "set".  But if you type a stty command at
  your terminal (without using < for redirection) and then hit <return>
  it's a different story.  The <return> puts the terminal in cooked
  mode.  Your changes are saved and will still be there when the
  terminal goes back into raw mode (unless of course it's a setting not
  allowed in raw mode).

  This situation can create problems.  For example, suppose you corrupt
  your terminal interface and to restore it you go to another terminal
  and "stty sane <dev/ttyS1" to restore it.  It will not work!  Of
  course you can try to type "stty sane ..." at the terminal that is
  corrupted but you can't see what you typed.  All the above not only
  applies to dumb terminals but to virtual terminals used on a PC
  Monitor as well as to the terminal windows in X.  In other words, it
  applies to almost everyone who uses Linux.  Luckily, a file that runs
  stty at boot-time will likely deal with a terminal (or serial port
  with no terminal) that has no shell running on it so there's no
  problem.


  8.4.4.  Where to put the stty command ?

  Should you need to have stty set up the serial interface each time the
  computer starts up then you need to put the stty command in a file
  that will be executed each time the computer is started up (Linux
  boots).  It should be run before the serial port is used (including
  running getty on the port).  There are many possible places to put it.
  If it gets put in more than one place and you only know about (or
  remember) one of those places, then a conflict is likely.  So make
  sure to document what you do.

  One place to put it would be in the same file that runs setserial when
  the system is booted.  The location is distribution and version
  dependent.  It would seem best to put it after the setserial command
  so that the low level stuff is done first.  If you have directories in
  the /etc tree where every file in them is executed at boot-time
  (System V Init) then you could create a file named "stty" for this
  purpose.



  8.5.  What is isapnp ?

  isapnp is a program to configure Plug-and-Play (PnP) devices on the
  ISA bus including internal modems.  It comes in a package called
  "isapnptools" and includes another program, "pnpdump" which finds all
  your ISA PnP devices and shows you options for configuring them in a
  format which may be added to the PnP configuration file:
  /etc/isapnp.conf.  The isapnp command may be put into a startup file
  so that it runs each time you start the computer and thus will
  configure ISA PnP devices.  It is able to do this even if your BIOS
  doesn't support PnP.  See Plug-and-Play-HOWTO.


  9.  Speed (Flow Rate)

  By "speed" we really mean the "data flow rate" but almost everybody
  incorrectly calls it speed.  The speed is measured in bits/sec (or
  baud).  Speed is set using the "stty" command or by a program which
  uses the serial port.  See ``Stty''


  9.1.  Can't Set a High Enough Speed

  You need to find out the highest speed supported by your hardware.  As
  of late 1998 most hardware only supported speeds up to 115.2K bps.  A
  few 56K internal modems support 230.4K bps.  Recent Linux kernels
  support high speeds (over 115.2K) but you might have difficulty using
  it because of one or both of the following reasons:


  1. The application program (or stty) will not accept the high speed.

  2. Setserial has a default speed of 115,200 (but this default is easy
     to change)


  9.1.1.  How speed is set in hardware: the divisor and baud_base

  Here's a list of commonly used divisors and their corresponding speeds
  (assuming a maximum speed of 115,200): 1 (115.2K), 2 (57.6K), 3
  (38.4K), 6 (19.2K), 12 (9.6K), 24 (4.8K), 48 (2.4K), 96 (1.2K), etc.
  The serial driver sets the speed in the hardware by sending the
  hardware only a "divisor" (a positive integer).  This "divisor"
  divides the maximum speed of the hardware resulting in a slower speed
  (except a divisor of 1 obviously tells the hardware to run at maximum
  speed).

  Normally, if you specify a speed of 115.2K (in your communication
  program or by stty) then the serial driver sets the port hardware to
  divisor 1 which obviously sets the highest speed.  If you happen to
  have hardware with a maximum speed of say 230.4K, then specifying
  115.2K will result in divisor 1 and will actually give you 230.4K.
  This is double the speed that you set.  In fact, for any speed you
  set, the actual speed will be double.  If you had hardware that could
  run at 460.8K then the actual speed would be quadruple what you set.


  9.1.2.  Work-arounds for setting speed

  To correct this accounting (but not always fix the problem) you may
  use "setserial" to change the baud_base to the actual maximal speed of
  your port such as 230.4K.  Then if you set the speed (by your
  application or by stty) to 230.4K, a divisor of 1 will be used and
  you'll get the same speed as you set.  PROBLEM: stty and many
  communication programs (as of mid 1999) still have 115.2K as their
  maximum speed setting and will not let you set 230.4K, etc.  So in
  these cases one solution is not to change anything with setserial but
  mentally keep in mind that the actual speed is always double what you
  set.

  There's another work-around which is not much better.  To use it you
  set the baud_base (with setserial) to the maximal speed of your
  hardware.  This corrects the accounting so that if you set say 115.2K
  you actually get 115.2K.  Now you still have to figure out how to set
  the highest speed if your communication program (or the like) will not
  let you do it.  Fortunately, setserial has a way to do this: use the
  "spd_cust" parameter with "divisor 1".  Then when you set the speed to
  38400 in a communication program, the divisor will be set to 1 in the
  port and it will operate at maximum speed.  For example:
  setserial /dev/ttyS2 spd_cust baud_base 230400 divisor 1
  Don't try using "divisor" for any other purpose other than the special
  use illustrated above (with spd_cust).

  If there are two or more high speeds that you want to use that your
  communication program can't set, then it's not quite as easy as above.
  But the same principles apply.   You could just keep the default
  baud_base and understand that when you set a speed you are really only
  setting a divisor.  So your actual speed will always be your maximum
  speed divided by whatever divisor is set by the serial driver.  See
  ``How speed is set in hardware: the divisor and baud_base''


  9.1.3.  Crystal frequency is not baud_base

  Note that the baud_base setting is usually much lower than the
  frequency of the crystal oscillator in the hardware since the crystal
  frequency is often divided by 16 in the hardware to get the actual top
  speed.  The reason the crystal frequency needs to be higher is so that
  this high crystal speed can be used to take a number of samples of
  each  bit to determine if it's a 1 or a 0.



  9.2.  Higher Serial Throughput

  If you are seeing slow throughput and serial port overruns on a system
  with (E)IDE disk drives, you can get hdparm.  This is a utility that
  can modify (E)IDE parameters, including unmasking other IRQs during a
  disk IRQ.  This will improve responsiveness and will help eliminate
  overruns.  Be sure to read the man page very carefully, since some
  drive/controller combinations don't like this and may corrupt the
  filesystem.

  Also have a look at a utility called irqtune that will change the IRQ
  priority of a device, for example the serial port that your modem is
  on.  This may improve the serial throughput on your system.  The
  irqtune FAQ is at http://www.best.com/~cae/irqtune
  <http://www.best.com/~cae/irqtune>


  10.  Communications Programs And Utilities

  10.1.  List of Software

  Here is a list of some communication software you can choose from,
  available via FTP, if they didn't come with your distribution.


  o  ecu - a communications program

  o  C-Kermit <http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/> - portable, scriptable,
     serial and TCP/IP communications including file transfer,
     character-set translation, and zmodem support

  o  minicom - telix-like communications program

  o  procomm - procomm-like communications program with zmodem

  o  seyon - X based communication program

  o  xc - xcomm communication package

  o  term and SLiRP offer TCP/IP functionality using a shell account.

  o  screen is another multi-session program.  This one behaves like the
     virtual consoles.

  o  callback is where you dial out to a remote modem and then that
     modem hangs up and calls you back (to save on phone bills).

  o  mgetty+fax handles FAX stuff, and provides an alternate ps_getty.

  o  ZyXEL is a control program for ZyXEL U-1496 modems.  It handles
     dialin, dialout, dial back security, FAXing, and voice mailbox
     functions.


  o  SLIP and PPP software can be found at
      ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/network/serial.


  10.2.  kermit and zmodem

  To use zmodem with kermit, add the following to your .kermrc:


       define rz !rz < /dev/ttyS3 > /dev/ttyS3
       define sz !sz \%0 > /dev/ttyS3 < /dev/ttyS3




  Be sure to put in the correct port your modem is on.  Then, to use it,
  just type rz or sz <filename> at the kermit prompt.


  11.  Serial Tips And Miscellany

  Here are some serial tips you might find helpful...


  11.1.  Line Drivers

  For a text terminal, the EIA-232 speeds are fast enough but the usable
  cable length is often too short.  Balanced technology could fix this.
  The common method of obtaining balanced communication with a text
  terminal is to install 2@ line drivers in the serial line to convert
  unbalanced to balanced (and conversely).  They are a specialty item
  and are expensive if purchased new.

  11.2.  Known Defective Hardware

  11.2.1.  Avoiding IO Address Conflicts with Certain Video Boards

  The IO address of the IBM 8514 video board (and others) is allegedly
  0x?2e8 where ? is 2, 4, 8, or 9.  This may conflict (but shouldn't it
  the serial port is well designed) with the IO address of ttyS3 at
  0x02e8 if the serial port ignores the leading 0 hex digit when it
  decodes the address (many do).  That is bad news if you try to use
  ttyS3 at this IO address.  Another story is that Linux will not detect
  your internal modem on ttyS3 but that you can use setserial to put
  ttyS3 at this address and the modem will work fine.


  11.2.2.  Problem with AMD Elan SC400 CPU (PC-on-a-chip)

  This has a race condition between an interrupt and a status register
  of the UART.  An interrupt is issued when the UART transmitter
  finishes the transmission of a byte and the UART transmit buffer
  becomes empty (waiting for the next byte).  But a status register of
  the UART doesn't get updated fast enough to reflect this.  As a
  result, the interrupt service routine rapidly checks and determines
  (erroneously) that nothing has happened.  Thus no byte is sent to the
  port to be transmitted and the UART transmitter waits in vain for a
  byte that never arrives.  If the interrupt service routine had waited
  just a bit longer before checking the status register, then it would
  have been updated to reflect the true state and all would be OK.

  There is a proposal to fix this by patching the serial driver.  But
  Should linux be patched to accommodate defective hardware, especially
  if this patch may impair performance of good hardware?


  11.3.  What Are Lock Files ?

  A lock file is simply a file saying that a particular device is in
  use.  They are kept in /var/lock.  Formerly they were in
  /usr/spool/uucp.  Linux lock files are named LCK..name, where name is
  either a device name, or a UUCP site name.  Certain processes create
  these locks so that they can have exclusive access to devices.  For
  instance if you dial out on your modem, a lock will appear telling
  other processes that someone is using the modem already.  Locks mainly
  contain the PID of the process that has locked the device.  Most
  programs look at the lock, and try to determine if that lock is still
  valid by checking the process table for the process that has locked
  the device.  If the lock is found to be valid, the program (should)
  exit.  If not, some programs remove the stale lock, and use the
  device, creating their own lock in the process.  Other programs just
  exit and tell you that the device is in use.

  Having the same physical serial port known by two different device
  names (such as ttyS0 and cua0) could cause problems.  The lock
  checking software is aware of ttyS vs. cua but it will make things
  simpler in this regard by the planned elimination of cua.  In other
  cases, assigning an alternate name to the same device is asking for
  trouble.


  12.  Troubleshooting

  See Modem-HOWTO for troubleshooting related to modems or getty for
  modems.


  12.1.  Serial Electrical Test Equipment

  12.1.1.  Breakout Gadgets, etc.

  While a multimeter (used as a voltmeter) may be all that you need for
  just a few terminals, simple special test equipment has been made for
  testing serial port lines.  Some are called "breakout ... " where
  breakout means to break out conductors from a cable.  These gadgets
  have a couple of connectors on them and insert into the serial cable.
  Some have test points for connecting a voltmeter.  Others have LED
  lamps which light when certain modem control lines are asserted
  (turned on).  Still others have jumpers so that you can connect any
  wire to any wire.  Some have switches.

  Radio Shack sells (in 1998) a "RS-232 Troubleshooter" or "RS-232 Line
  Tester" which checks TD, RD, CD, RTS, CTS, DTR, and DSR.  A green
  light means on (+12 v) while red means off (-12 v).  They also sell a
  "RS-232 Serial Jumper Box" which permits connecting the pins anyway
  you choose.


  12.1.2.  Measuring Voltages

  Any voltmeter or multimeter, even the cheapest that sells for about
  $10, should work fine.  Trying to use other methods for checking
  voltage is tricky.  Don't use a LED unless it has a series resistor to
  reduce the voltage across the LED.  A 470 ohm resistor is used for a
  20 ma LED (but not all LED's are 20 ma).  The LED will only light for
  a certain polarity so you may test for + or - voltages.  Does anyone
  make such a gadget for automotive circuit testing??  Logic probes may
  be damaged if you try to use them since the TTL voltages for which
  they are designed are only 5 volts.  Trying to use a 12 V incandescent
  light bulb is not a good idea.  It won't show polarity and due to
  limited output current of the UART it probably will not even light up.

  To measure voltage on a female connector you may plug in a bent paper
  clip into the desired opening.  The paper clip's diameter should be no
  larger than the pins so that it doesn't damage the contact.  Clip an
  alligator clip (or the like) to the paper clip to connect up.


  12.1.3.  Taste Voltage

  As a last resort, if you have no test equipment and are willing to
  risk getting shocked (or even electrocuted) you can always taste the
  voltage.  Before touching one of the test leads with your tongue, test
  them to make sure that there is no high voltage on them.  Touch both
  leads (at the same time) to one hand to see if they shock you.  Then
  if no shock, wet the skin contact points by licking and repeat.  If
  this test gives you a shock, you certainly don't want to use your
  tongue.

  For the test for 12 V, Lick a finger and hold one test lead in it.
  Put the other test lead on your tongue.  If the lead on your tongue is
  positive, there will be a noticeable taste.  You might try this with
  flashlight batteries first so you will know what taste to expect.


  12.2.  Serial Monitoring/Diagnostics

  A few Linux programs will monitor the modem control lines and indicate
  if they are positive (1) or negative (0).  See section ``Serial
  Monitoring/Diagnostics''


  12.3.  The following subsections are in both the Serial and Modem HOW-
  TOs:

  12.4.  My Serial Port is Physically There but Can't be Found

  If a device (such as a modem) works on a serial port, then obviously
  the port has been found.  If it doesn't work at all, then you need to
  make sure your serial port can be found.

  Check the BIOS menus and BIOS messages.  If it's an ISA bus PnP serial
  port, try "pnpdump --dumpregs" and/or see Plug-and-Play-HOWTO.  For
  the PCI bus use lspci.  You may try probing with setserial.  See
  ``Probing'' If nothing seems to get thru the port it may be there but
  have a bad interrupt.  See ``Extremely Slow: Text appears on the
  screen slowly after long delays''.


  12.5.  Extremely Slow: Text appears on the screen slowly after long
  delays

  It's likely mis-set/conflicting interrupts.  Here are some of the
  symptoms which will happen the first time you try to use a modem,
  terminal, or printer.  In some cases you type something but nothing
  appears on the screen until many seconds later.  Only the last
  character typed may show up.  It may be just an invisible <return>
  character so all you notice is that the cursor jumps down one line.
  In other cases where a lot of data should appear on the screen, only a
  batch of about 16 characters appear.  Then there is a long wait of
  many seconds for the next batch of characters.  You might also get
  "input overrun" error messages (or find them in logs).

  For more details on the symptoms and why this happens see

  ``Interrupt Problem Details'' and/or ``Interrupt Conflicts'' and/or
  ``Mis-set Interrupts''.  If it involves Plug-and-Play devices, see
  also Plug-and-Play-HOWTO.

  As a quick check to see if it really is an interrupt problem, set the
  IRQ to 0 with "setserial".  This will tell the driver to use polling
  instead of interrupts.  If this seems to fix the "slow" problem then
  you had an interrupt problem.  You should still try to solve the
  problem since polling uses excessive computer resources and sometimes
  drastically decreases your thruput.

  Checking to find the interrupt conflict may not be easy since Linux
  supposedly doesn't permit any interrupt conflicts and will send you a
  ``/dev/ttyS?: Device or resource busy'' error message if it thinks you
  are attempting to create a conflict.  But a real conflict can be
  created if "setserial" has incorrect information.  Thus using
  "setserial" will not reveal the conflict (nor will looking at
  /proc/interrupts which bases its info on "setserial").  You still need
  to know what "setserial" thinks so that you can pinpoint where it's
  wrong and change it when you determine what's really set in the
  hardware.

  What you need to do is to check how the hardware is set by checking
  jumpers or using PnP software to check how the hardware is actually
  set.  For PnP run either "pnpdump --dumpregs" or run "lspci".  Compare
  this to how Linux (e.g. "setserial") thinks the hardware is set.


  12.6.  Somewhat Slow: I expected it to be a few times faster

  One reason may be that whatever is on the serial port (such as a
  modem, terminal, printer) doesn't work as fast as you thought it did.


  Another possible reason is that the serial driver thinks you have an
  obsolete serial port (UART 8250,16450 or early 16550).  See ``What Are
  UARTs?''.  Use "setserial -g /dev/ttyS*".  If it shows anything less
  than a 16550A, this is likely your problem.  Then if "setserial" has
  it wrong, change it.  See ``What is Setserial'' for more info.  Of
  course if you really do have an obsolete serial port, lying about it
  to setserial will only make things worse.



  12.7.  The Startup Screen Show Wrong IRQs for the Serial Ports.

  Linux does not do any IRQ detection on startup.  When the serial
  module loads it only does serial device detection.  Thus, disregard
  what it says about the IRQ, because it's just assuming the standard
  IRQs.  This is done, because IRQ detection is unreliable, and can be
  fooled.  But if and when setserial runs from a start-up script, it
  changes the IRQ's and displays the new (and hopefully correct) state
  on on the startup screen.  If the wrong IRQ is not corrected by a
  later display on the screen, then you've got a problem.

  So, even though I have my ttyS2 set at IRQ 5, I still see


       ttyS02 at 0x03e8 (irq = 4) is a 16550A




  at first when Linux boots.  (Older kernels may show "ttyS02" as
  "tty02") You have to use setserial to tell Linux the IRQ you are
  using.


  12.8.  "Cannot open /dev/ttyS?: Permission denied"

  Check the file permissions on this port with "ls -l /dev/ttyS?"_ If
  you own the ttyS? then you need read and write permissions: crw with
  the c (Character device) in col. 1.  It you don't own it then it
  should show rw- in cols. 8 & 9 which means that everyone has read and
  write permission on it.  Use "chmod" to change permissions.  There are
  more complicated ways to get access like belonging to a "group" that
  has group permission.


  12.9.  "Operation not supported by device" for ttyS?

  This means that an operation requested by setserial, stty, etc.
  couldn't be done because the kernel doesn't support doing it.
  Formerly this was often due to the "serial" module not being loaded.
  But with the advent of PnP, it may likely mean that there is no modem
  (or other serial device) at the address where the driver (and
  setserial) thinks it is.  If there is no modem there, commands (for
  operations) sent to that address obviously don't get done.  See ``What
  is set in my serial port hardware?''

  If the "serial" module wasn't loaded but "lsmod" shows you it's now
  loaded it might be the case that it's loaded now but wasn't loaded
  when you got the error message.  In many cases the module will
  automatically loaded when needed (if it can be found).  To force
  loading of the "serial" module it may be listed in the file:
  /etc/modules.conf or /etc/modules.  The actual module should reside
  in: /lib/modules/.../misc/serial.o.


  12.10.  "Cannot create lockfile. Sorry"

  When a port is "opened" by a program a lockfile is created in
  /var/lock/.  Wrong permissions for the lock directory will not allow a
  lockfile to be created there.  Use "ls -ld /var/lock" to see if the
  permissions are OK: usually rwx for everyone (repeated 3 times).  If
  it's wrong, use "chmod" to fix it.  Of course, if there is no "lock"
  directory no lockfile can be created there.  For more info on
  lockfiles see ``What Are Lock Files''


  12.11.  "Device /dev/ttyS? is locked."

  This means that someone else (or some other process) is supposedly
  using the serial port.  There are various ways to try to find out what
  process is "using" it.  One way is to look at the contents of the
  lockfile (/var/lock/LCK...).  It should be the process id.  If the
  process id is say 261 type "ps 261" to find out what it is.  Then if
  the process is no longer needed, it may be gracefully killed by "kill
  261".  If it refuses to be killed use "kill -9 261" to force it to be
  killed, but then the lockfile will not be removed and you'll need to
  delete it manually.  Of course if there is no such process as 161 then
  you may just remove the lockfile but in most cases the lockfile should
  have been automatically removed if it contained a stale process id
  (such as 261).


  12.12.  "/dev/ttyS?: Device or resource busy"



  ``resource busy'' often means (for the case of ttyS2) ``You can't use
  ttyS2 since another device is using ttyS2's interrupt.''  The
  potential interrupt conflict is inferred from what "setserial" thinks.
  A more accurate error message would be ``Can't use ttyS2 since the
  setserial data indicates that another device is using ttyS2's
  interrupt''.

  Thus there are two possibilities.  There may be a real interrupt
  conflict that is being avoided.  But if setserial has it wrong, there
  may be no reason why ttyS2 can't be used, except that setserial
  erroneously predicts a conflict.  What you need to do is to find the
  interrupt setserial thinks ttyS2 is using by looking at boot-time
  messages (using setserial will not work since it gives the "device
  busy" error message).  Then check to see if anything else uses this
  interrupt or if the interrupt reported is the same as set in the
  hardware.


  12.13.  Troubleshooting Tools

  These are some of the programs you might want to use in
  troubleshooting:

  o  "lsof /dev/ttyS*" will list serial ports which are open.

  o  "setserial" shows and sets the low-level hardware configuration of
     a port (what the driver thinks it is).  See ``What is Setserial''

  o  "stty" shows and sets the configuration of a port (except for that
     handled by "setserial").  See the section ``Stty''

  o  "modemstat" or "statserial" will show the current state of various
     modem signal lines (such as DTR, CTS, etc.)

  o  "irqtune" will give serial port interrupts higher priority to
     improve performance.

  o  "hdparm" for hard-disk tuning may help some more.

  o  "lspci" shows the actual IRQs, etc. of hardware on the PCI bus.

  o  "pnpdump --dumpregs" shows the actual IRQs, etc. of hardware for
     PnP devices on the ISA bus.

  o  Some "files" in the /proc tree (such as ioports and interrupts).

  13.  Interrupt Problem Details

  While the section ``Troubleshooting'' lists problems by symptom, this
  section explains what will happen if interrupts are set incorrectly.
  This section helps you understand what caused the symptom, what other
  symptoms might be due to the same problem, and what to do about it.


  13.1.  Types of interrupt problems

  The "setserial" program will show you how serial driver thinks the
  interrupts are set.  If the serial driver (and setserial) has it right
  then everything regarding interrupts should be OK.  Of course a
  /dev/ttyS must exist for the device and Plug-and-Play (or jumpers)
  must have set an address and IRQ in the hardware.  Linux will not
  knowingly permit an interrupt conflict and you will get a "Device or
  resource busy" error message if you attempt to do something that would
  create a conflict.

  Since the kernel tries to avoid interrupt conflicts and gives you the
  "resource busy" message if you try to create a conflict, how can
  interrupt conflicts happen?  Easy.  "setserial" may have it wrong and
  erroneously predicts no conflict when there will actually be a real
  conflict based on what is set in the hardware.  When this happens
  there will be no "... busy" message but performance will be extremely
  slow.  Both devices will send identical interrupt signals on the same
  wire and the CPU will erroneously think that the interrupts only come
  from one device.  This will be explained in detail in the following
  sections.

  Linux doesn't complain when you assign two devices the same IRQ
  provided that neither device is in use.  As each device starts up
  (initializes), it asks Linux for permission to use its hardware
  interrupt.  Linux keeps track of which interrupt is assigned to whom,
  and if your interrupt is already in use, you'll see this "... busy"
  error message.  Thus if two devices use the same IRQ and you start up
  only one of the devices, everything is OK.  But when you next try to
  start the second device (without quitting the first device) you get
  "... busy" error message.


  13.2.  Symptoms of Mis-set or Conflicting Interrupts

  The symptoms depend on whether or not you have a modern serial port
  with FIFO buffers or an obsolete serial port without FIFO buffers.
  It's important to understand the symptoms for the obsolete ones also
  since sometimes modern ports seem to behave that way.

  For the obsolete serial ports, only one character gets thru every
  several seconds.  This is so slow that it seems almost like nothing is
  working (especially if the character that gets thru is invisible (such
  a space or newline).  For the modern ports with FIFO buffers you will
  likely see bursts of up to 16 characters every several seconds.

  If you have a modem on the port and dial a number, it seemingly may
  not connect since the CONNECT message may not make it thru.  But after
  a long wait it may finally connect and you may see part of a login
  message (or the like).  The response from your side of the connection
  may be so delayed that the other side gives up and disconnects you,
  resulting in a NO CARRIER message.

  If you use minicom, a common test to see if things are working is to
  type the simplest "AT" command and see if the modem responds.  Typing
  just at<enter> should normally (if interrupts are OK) result in an
  immediate "OK" response from the modem.  With bad interrupts you type
  at<enter> and may see nothing.  But then after 10 seconds or so you
  see the cursor drop down one line.  What is going on is that the FIFO
  is behaving like it can only hold one byte.  The "at" you typed caused
  it to overrun and both letters were lost.  But the final <enter> got
  thru since you waited for it and you "see" this invisible character by
  noting that the cursor jumped down one line.  If you were to type a
  single letter and then wait about 10 seconds, you should see it echo
  back to the screen.  This is fine if your typing speed is less that
  one word per minute :-)


  13.3.  Mis-set Interrupts

  If you don't understand what an interrupt does see ``Interrupts''.  If
  a serial port has one IRQ set in the hardware but a different one set
  in the device driver, the device driver will not catch any interrupts
  sent by the serial port.  Since the serial port uses interrupts to
  call its driver to service the port (fetching bytes from it's 16-byte
  receive buffer or putting another 16-bytes in its transmit buffer) one
  might expect that the serial port would not work at all.

  But it still may work anyway --sort of.  Why?  Well, besides the
  interrupt method of servicing the port there's a slow polling method
  that doesn't need interrupts.  The way it works is that every so often
  the device driver checks the serial port to see if it needs anything
  such as if it has some bytes that need fetching from its receive
  buffer.  If interrupts don't work, the serial driver falls back to
  this polling method.  But this polling method was not intended to be
  used a substitute for interrupts.   It's so slow that it's not
  practical to use and may cause buffer overruns.  Its purpose may have
  been to get things going again if just one interrupt is lost or fails
  to do the right thing.  It's also useful in showing you that
  interrupts have failed.

  For the 16-byte transmit buffer, 16 bytes will be transmitted and then
  it will wait until the next polling takes place (several seconds
  later) before the next 16 bytes are sent out.  Thus transmission is
  very slow and in small chunks.  Receiving is slow too since bytes that
  are received by the receive buffer are likely to remain there for
  several seconds until it is polled.

  This explains why it takes so long before you see what you typed.
  When you type say AT to a modem, the AT goes out the serial port to
  the modem.  The modem then echos the AT back thru the serial port to
  the screen.  Thus the AT characters have to pass twice thru the serial
  port.  Normally this happens so fast that AT seems to appear on the
  screen at the same time you hit the keys on the keyboard.  With
  polling delays thru the serial port, you don't see what you typed
  until many seconds later.

  What about overruns of the 16-byte receive buffer?  This will happen
  with an external modem since the modem just sends to the serial port
  at high speed which is likely to overrun the 16-byte buffer.  But for
  an internal modem, the serial port is on the same card and it's likely
  to check that this receive buffer has room for more bytes before
  putting received bytes into it.  In this case there will be no overrun
  of this receive buffer, but text will just appear on your screen in
  16-byte chunks spaced at intervals of several seconds.

  Even with an external modem you might not get overruns.  If just a few
  characters (under 16) are sent you don't get overruns since the buffer
  likely has room for them.  But attempts to send a larger number of
  bytes from your modem to your screen may result in overruns.  However,
  more than 16 (with no gaps) can get thru without overruns if the
  timing is right.  For example, suppose a burst of 32 bytes is sent
  into the port from the external cable.  The polling might just happen
  after the first 16 bytes came in so it would pick up these 16 bytes
  OK.  Then there would be space for the next 16 bytes so that entire 32
  bytes gets thru OK.  While this scenario is not very likely, similar
  cases where 17 to 31 bytes make thru are more likely.  But it's even
  more likely that only an occasional 16-byte chunk will get thru with
  possible loss of data.

  If you have an obsolete serial port with only a 1-byte buffer (or it's
  been incorrectly set to work like a 1-byte buffer) then the situation
  will be much worse than described above and only one character will
  occasionally make it thru the port.  Every character received causes
  an overrun (and is lost) except for the last character received.  This
  character is likely to be just a line-feed since this is often the
  last character to be transmitted in a burst of characters sent to your
  screen.  Thus you may type AT<return> to the modem but never see AT on
  the screen.  All you see several seconds later is that the cursor
  drops down one line (a line feed).  This has happened to me with a
  16-byte FIFO buffer that was behaving like a 1-byte buffer.

  When a communication program starts up, it expects interrupts to be
  working.  It's not geared to using this slow polling-like mode of
  operation.  Thus all sorts of mistakes may be made such as setting up
  the serial port and/or modem incorrectly.  It may fail to realize when
  a connection has been made.  If a script is being used for login, it
  may fail (caused by timeout) due to the polling delays.


  13.4.  Interrupt Conflicts

  When two devices have the same IRQ number it's called sharing
  interrupts.  Under some conditions this sharing works out OK.
  Starting with kernel version 2.2, serial ports may, in some cases,
  share interrupts with other serial ports.  Devices on the PCI bus may
  share the same IRQ interrupt with other devices on the PCI bus.  In
  other cases where there is potential for conflict, there should be no
  problem if no two devices with the same IRQ are ever "in use" at the
  same time.   More precisely, "in use" really means "open" (in
  programmer jargon).  In cases other than the exceptions mentioned
  above (unless special software and hardware permit sharing), sharing
  is not allowed and conflicts arise if sharing is attempted.

  Even if two processes with conflicting IRQs run at the same time, one
  of the devices will likely have its interrupts caught by its device
  driver and may work OK.  The other device will not have its interrupts
  caught by the correct driver and will likely behave just like a
  process with mis-set interrupts.  See ``Mis-set Interrupts'' for more
  details.


  13.5.  Resolving Interrupt Problems

  If you are getting a very slow response as described above, then one
  test is to change the IRQ to 0 (uses fast polling instead of
  interrupts) and see if the problem goes away.  Note that the polling
  due to IRQ=0 is orders of magnitude faster than the slow "polling" due
  to bad interrupts.  If IRQ=0 seems to fix the problem, then there was
  likely something wrong with the interrupts.  Using IRQ=0 is very
  resource intensive and is only a temporary fix.  You should try to
  find the cause of the interrupt problem and not permanently use IRQ=0.

  Check /proc/interrupts to see if the IRQ is currently in use by
  another process. If it's in use by another serial port you could try
  "top" (type f and then enable the TTY display) or "ps -e" to find out
  which serial ports are in use.  If you suspect that setserial has a
  wrong IRQ then see ``What is the current IO address and IRQ of my
  Serial Port ?''

  14.  What Are UARTs?  How Do They Affect Performance?

  14.1.  Introduction to UARTS

  (This section is also in the Modem-HOWTO) UARTs (Universal
  Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) are serial chips on your PC
  motherboard (or on an internal modem card).   The UART function may
  also be done on a chip that does other things as well.  On older
  computers like many 486's, the chips were on the disk IO controller
  card.  Still older computer have dedicated serial boards.

  The UART's purpose is to convert bytes from the PC's parallel bus to a
  serial bit-stream.  The cable going out of the serial port is serial
  and has only one wire for each direction of flow.  The serial port
  sends out a stream of bits, one bit at a time.  Conversely, the bit
  stream that enters the serial port via the external cable is converted
  to parallel bytes that the computer can understand.  UARTs deal with
  data in byte sized pieces, which is conveniently also the size of
  ASCII characters.

  Say you have a terminal hooked up to your PC.  When you type a
  character, the terminal gives that character to it's transmitter (also
  a UART).  The transmitter sends that byte out onto the serial line,
  one bit at a time, at a specific rate.  On the PC end, the receiving
  UART takes all the bits and rebuilds the (parallel) byte and puts it
  in a buffer.

  Along with converting between serial and parallel, the UART does some
  other things as a byproduct (side effect) of it's primary task.  The
  voltage used to represent bits is also converted (changed).  Extra
  bits (called start and stop bits) are added to each byte before it is
  transmitted.  See the Serial-HOWTO section, ``Voltage Waveshapes'' for
  details.  Also, while the flow rate (in bytes/sec) on the parallel bus
  inside the computer is very high, the flow rate out the UART on the
  serial port side of it is much lower.  The UART has a fixed set of
  rates (speeds) which it can use at its serial port interface.


  14.2.  Two Types of UARTs

  There are two basic types of UARTs: dumb UARTS and FIFO UARTS.  Dumb
  UARTs are the 8250, 16450, early 16550, and early 16650.  They are
  obsolete but if you understand how they work it's easy to understand
  how the modern ones work with FIFO UARTS ( late 16550, 16550A, 16c552,
  late 16650, 16750, and 16C950).

  There is some confusion regarding 16550.  Early models had a bug and
  worked properly only as 16450's (no FIFO).  Later models with the bug
  fixed were named 16550A but many manufacturers did not accept the name
  change and continued calling it a 16550.  Most all 16550's in use
  today are like 16550A's.  Linux will report it as being a 16550A even
  though your hardware manual (or a label note) says it's a 16550.  A
  similar situation exists for the 16650 (only it's worse since the
  manufacturer allegedly didn't admit anything was wrong).  Linux will
  report a late 16650 as being a 16650V2.  If it reports it as 16650 it
  is bad news and only is used as if it had a one-byte buffer.


  14.3.  FIFOs

  To understand the differences between dumb and FIFO (First In, First
  Out queue discipline) first let's examine what happens when a UART has
  sent or received a byte.  The UART itself can't do anything with the
  data passing thru it, it just receives and sends it.  For the original
  dumb UARTS, the CPU gets an interrupt from the serial device every
  time a byte has been sent or received.  The CPU then moves the
  received byte out of the UART's buffer and into memory somewhere, or
  gives the UART another byte to send.  The 8250 and 16450 UARTs only
  have a 1 byte buffer.  That means, that every time 1 byte is sent or
  received, the CPU is interrupted.  At low transfer rates, this is OK.
  But, at high transfer rates, the CPU gets so busy dealing with the
  UART, that is doesn't have time to adequately tend to other tasks.  In
  some cases, the CPU does not get around to servicing the interrupt in
  time, and the byte is overwritten, because they are coming in so fast.
  This is called an "overrun" or "overflow".

  That's where the FIFO UARTs are useful.  The 16550A (or 16550) FIFO
  chip comes with 16 byte FIFO buffers.  This means that it can receive
  up to 14 bytes (or send 16 bytes) before it has to interrupt the CPU.
  Not only can it wait for more bytes, but the CPU then can transfer all
  14 (or more) bytes at a time.  This is a significant advantage over
  the other UARTs, which only have 1 byte buffers.  The CPU receives
  less interrupts, and is free to do other things.  Data is not lost,
  and everyone is happy.  Note that the interrupt threshold of FIFO
  buffers (trigger level) may be set at less than 14.  1, 4 and 8 are
  other possible choices.

  While most PC's only have a 16550 with 16-byte buffers, better UARTS
  have even larger buffers.  Note that the interrupt is issued slightly
  before the buffer get full (at say a "trigger level" of 14 bytes for a
  16-byte buffer).  This allows room for a few more bytes to be received
  during the time that the interrupt is being serviced.  The trigger
  level may be set to various permitted values by kernel software.  A
  trigger level of 1 will be almost like a dumb UART (except that it
  still has room for 15 more bytes after it issues the interrupt).

  If you type something while visiting a BBS, the characters you type go
  out thru the serial port.  Your typed characters that you see on the
  screen are what was echoed back thru the telephone line thru your
  modem and then thru your serial port to the screen.  If you had a
  16-byte buffer on the serial port which held back characters until it
  had 14 of them, you would need to type many characters before you
  could see what you typed (before they appeared on the screen).  This
  would be very confusing but there is a "timeout" to prevent this.
  Thus you normally see a character on the screen just as soon as you
  type it.

  The "timeout" works like this for the receive UART buffer: If
  characters arrive one after another, then an interrupt is issued only
  when say the 14th character reaches the buffer.  But if a character
  arrives and the next character doesn't arrive soon thereafter, then an
  interrupt is issued.  This happens even though there are not 14
  characters in the buffer (there may only be one character in it).
  Thus when what you type goes thru this buffer, it acts almost like a
  1-byte buffer even though it is actually a 16-byte buffer (unless your
  typing speed is a hundred times faster than normal).  There is also
  "timeout" for the transmit buffer as well.


  14.4.  UART Model Numbers

  Here's a list of UARTs.  TL is Trigger Level

  o  8250, 16450, early 16550: Obsolete with 1-byte buffers

  o  16550, 16550A, 16c552: 16-byte buffers, TL=1,4,8,14

  o  16650:  32-byte buffers. Speed up to 460.8 Kbps

  o  16750:  64-byte buffer for send, 56-byte for receive.  Speed up to
     921.6 Kbps

  o  Hayes ESP: 1K-byte buffers.

  The obsolete ones are only good for modems no higher than 14.4k (DTE
  speeds up to 38400 bps).  For modern modems you need at least a 16550
  (and not an early 16550).  For V.90 56k modems, it may be a several
  percent faster with a 16650 (especially if you are downloading
  uncompressed files).  The main advantage of the 16650 is its larger
  buffer size as the extra speed isn't needed unless the modem
  compression ratio is high.  Some 56k internal modems may come with a
  16650 ??

  Non-UART, and intelligent multiport boards use DSP chips to do
  additional buffering and control, thus relieving the CPU even more.
  For example, the Cyclades Cyclom, and Stallion EasyIO boards use a
  Cirrus Logic CD1400 RISC UART, and many boards use 80186 CPUs or even
  special RISC CPUs, to handle the serial IO.

  Most newer PC's (486's, Pentiums, or better) come with 16550A's
  (usually called just 16550's).  If you have something really old the
  chip may unplug so that you may be able to upgrade by buying a 16550A
  chip and replacing your existing 16450 UART.  If the functionality has
  been put on another type of chip, you are out of luck.  If the UART is
  socketed, then upgrading is easy (if you can find a replacement).  The
  new and old are pin-to-pin compatible.  It may be more feasible to
  just buy a new serial board on the Internet (few retail stores stock
  them today).



  15.  Pinout and Signals

  15.1.  Pinout



          PINOUT of the SERIAL PORT    (--> direction is out of PC)
                  (Note DCD is sometimes labeled CD)
  Pin #   Pin #   Acronym  Full-Name   Direction  What-it-May-Do/Mean
  9-pin   25-pin
   3       2      TxD     Transmit Data     -->   Transmits byte out of PC
   2       3      RxD     Receive Data      <--   Receives bytes into PC
   7       4      RTS     Request To Send   -->   RTS/CTS flow control
   8       5      CTS     Clear To Send     <--   RTS/CTS flow control
   6       6      DSR     Data Set Ready    <--   I'm ready to communicate
   4      20      DTR     Data Terminal Ready-->  I'm ready to communicate
   1       8      DCD     Data Carrier Detect<--  Modem connected to another
   9      22      RI      Ring Indicator    <--   Telephone line ringing
   5       7              Signal Ground




  15.2.  Signals May Have No Fixed Meaning

  Only 3 of the 9 pins have a fixed assignment: transmit, receive and
  signal ground.  This is fixed by the hardware and you can't change it.
  But the other signal lines are controlled by software and may do (and
  mean) almost anything at all.  However they can only be in one of two
  states: asserted (+12 volts) or negated (-12 volts).  Asserted is "on"
  and negated is "off".  For example, Linux software may command that
  DTR be negated and the hardware only carries out this command and puts
  -12 volts on the DTR pin.  A modem (or other device) that receives
  this DTR signal may do various things.  If a modem has been configured
  a certain way it will hang-up the telephone line when DTR is negated.
  In other cases it may ignore this signal or do something else when DTR
  is negated (turned off).
  It's like this for all the 6 signal lines.  The hardware only sends
  and receives the signals, but what action (if any) they perform is up
  to the Linux software and the configuration/design of devices that you
  connect to the serial port.  However, most pins have certain functions
  which they normally perform but this may vary with the operating
  system and the device driver configuration.  Under Linux, one may
  modify the source code to make these signal lines behave differently
  (some people have).


  15.3.  Cabling Between Serial Ports

  A cable from a serial port always connects to another serial port.  A
  modem or other device that connects to the serial port has a serial
  port built into it.  For modems, the cable is always straight thru:
  pin 2 goes to pin 2, etc.  The modem is said to be DCE (Data
  Communications Equipment) and the computer is said to be DTE (Data
  Terminal Equipment).  Thus for connecting DTE-to-DCE you use straight-
  thru cable.  For connecting DTE-to-DTE you must use a null-modem cable
  and there are many ways to wire such cable (see examples in Text-
  Terminal-HOWTO subsection: "Direct Cable Connection")

  There are good reasons why it works this way.  One reason is that the
  signals are unidirectional.  If pin 2 sends a signal out of it (but is
  unable to receive any signal) then obviously you can't connect it to
  pin 2 of the same type of device.  If you did, they would both send
  out signals on the same wire to each other but neither would be able
  to receive any signal.  There are two ways to deal with this
  situation.  One way is to have a two different types of equipment
  where pin 2 of the first type sends the signal to pin 2 of the second
  type (which receives the signal).  That's the way it's done when you
  connect a PC (DTE) to a modem (DCE).  There's a second way to do this
  without having two different types of equipment: Connect pin 3 (a
  sending pin) to a receiving pin 3 on same type of equipment.  That's
  the way it's done when you connect 2 PC's together or a PC to a
  terminal (DTE-to-DTE).  The cable used for this is called a null-modem
  cable.

  The serial pin designations were originally intended for connecting a
  dumb terminal to a modem.  The terminal was DTE (Data Terminal
  Equipment) and the modem was DCE (Data Communication Equipment).
  Today the PC is usually used as DTE instead of a terminal (but real
  terminals may still be used this way).  The names of the pins are the
  same on both DTE and DCE.  The words: "receive" and "transmit" are in
  this case from the point of view of the PC (DTE).  The transmit pin
  from the PC transmits to the "transmit" pin of the modem (but actually
  the modem is receiving the data from this pin so from the point of
  view of the modem it would be a receive pin).

  The serial port was originally intended to be used for connecting DTE
  to DCE which makes cabling simple: just use a straight-thru cable.
  Thus when one connects a modem one seldom needs to worry about which
  pin is which.  But people wanted to connect DTE to DTE (for example a
  computer to a terminal) and various ways were found to do this by
  fabricating various type of special cables.  In this case what pin
  connects to what pin becomes more important.


  15.4.  RTS/CTS and DTR/DSR Flow Control

  This is "hardware" flow control.  Flow control was previously
  explained in the ``Flow Control'' subsection but the pins and voltage
  signals were not.  Linux only supports RTS/CTS flow control at present
  (but a special driver may exist for a specific application which
  supports DTR/DSR flow control).  Only RTS/CTS flow control will be
  discussed since DTR/DSR flow control works the same way.  To get
  RTS/CTS flow control one needs to either select hardware flow control
  in an application program or use the command:
  stty crtscts < /dev/ttyS2 (or the like).  This enables RTS/CTS
  hardware flow control in the Linux device driver.

  Then when a DTE (such as a PC) wants to stop the flow into it, it
  negates RTS.  Negated "Request To Send" (-12 volts) means "Request NOT
  To Send to me" (stop sending).  When the PC is ready for more bytes it
  asserts RTS (+12 volts) and the flow of bytes to it resumes.  Flow
  control signals are always sent in a direction opposite to the flow of
  bytes that is being controlled.  DCE equipment (modems) works the same
  way but sends the stop signal out the CTS pin.  Thus it's RTS/CTS flow
  control using 2 lines.

  On what pins is this stop signal received?  That depends on whether we
  have a DCE-DTE connection or a DTE-DTE connection.  For DCE-DTE it's a
  straight-thru connection so obviously the signal is received on a pin
  with the same name as the pin it's sent out from.  It's RTS-->RTS (PC
  to modem) and CTS<--CTS (modem to PC).  For DTE-to-DTE the connection
  is also easy to figure out.  The RTS pin always sends and the CTS pin
  always receives.  Assume that we connect two PCs (PC1 and PC2)
  together via their serial ports.  Then it's RTS(PC1)-->CTS(PC2) and
  CTS(PC1)<--RTS(PC2).  In other words RTS and CTS cross over.  Such a
  cable (with other signals crossed over as well) is called a "null
  modem" cable.  See ``Cabling Between Serial Ports''

  What is sometimes confusing is that there is the original use of RTS
  where it means about the opposite of the previous explanation above.
  This original meaning is: I Request To Send to you.  This request was
  intended to be sent from a terminal (or computer) to a modem which, if
  it decided to grant the request, would send back an asserted CTS from
  its CTS pin to the CTS pin of the computer: You are Cleared To Send to
  me.  Note that in contrast to the modern RTS/CTS bi-directional flow
  control, this only protects the flow in one direction: from the
  computer (or terminal) to the modem.  This original use appears to be
  little used today on modern equipment (including modems).


  15.4.1.  The DTR and DSR Pins

  Just like RTS and CTS, these pins are paired.  For DTE-to-DTE
  connections they are likely to cross over.  There are two ways to use
  these pins.  One way is to use them as a substitute for RTS/CTS flow
  control.  The DTR pin is just like the RTS pin while the DSR pin
  behaves like the CTS pin.  Although Linux doesn't support DTR/DSR flow
  control, it can be obtained by connecting the RTS/CTS pins at the PC
  to the DSR/DTR pins at the device that uses DTR/DSR flow control.  DTR
  flow control is the same as DTR/DSR flow control but it's only one-way
  and the DSR pin is not used.  Many text terminals and some printers
  use this type of flow control.

  The normal use of DTR and DSR is as follows: A device asserting DTR
  says that its powered on and ready to operate.  For a modem, the
  meaning of a DTR signal from the PC depends on how the modem is
  configured.  To send a DTR signal manually from a PC using the stty
  command set the baud rate to 0.  Negating DTR is sometimes called
  "hanging up" but it doesn't always do this.


  15.5.  Preventing a Port From Opening

  If "stty -clocal" (or getty is used with the "local" flag negated)
  then a serial port can't open until DCD gets an assert (+12 volts)
  signal.


  16.  Voltage Waveshapes

  16.1.  Voltage for a Bit

  At the EIA-232 serial port, voltages are bipolar (positive or negative
  with respect to ground) and should be about 12 volts in magnitude
  (some are 5 or 10 volts).   For the transmit and receive pins +12
  volts is a 0-bit (sometimes called "space") and -12 volts is a 1-bit
  (sometimes called "mark").  This is known as inverted logic since
  normally a 0-bit is both false and negative while a one is normally
  both true and positive.  Although the receive and transmit pins are
  inverted logic, other pins (modem control lines) are normal logic with
  a positive voltage being true (or "on" or "asserted") and a negative
  voltage being false (or "off" or "negated").  Zero voltage has no
  meaning (except it usually means that the unit is powered off).

  A range of voltages is allowed.  The specs say the magnitude of a
  transmitted signal should be between 5 and 15 volts but must never
  exceed 25 V.  Any voltage received under 3 V is undefined (but some
  devices will accept a lower voltage as valid).  One sometimes sees
  erroneous claims that the voltage is commonly 5 volts (or even 3
  volts) but it's usually 11-12 volts.  If you are using a EIA-422 port
  on a Mac computer as an EIA-232 (requires a special cable) or EIA-423
  then the voltage will actually be only 5 V.  The discussion here
  assumes 12 V.

  Note that normal computer logic normally is just a few volts (5 volts
  was once the standard) so that if you try to use test equipment
  designed for testing 3-5 volt computer logic (TTL) on the 12 volts of
  a serial port, it may damage the test equipment.


  16.2.  Voltage Sequence for a Byte

  The transmit pin (TxD) is held at -12 V (mark) at idle when nothing is
  being sent.  To start a byte it jumps to +12 V (space) for the start
  bit and remains at +12 V for the duration (period) of the start bit.
  Next comes the low-order bit of the data byte.  If it's a 0-bit
  nothing changes and the line remains at +12 V for another bit-period.
  If it's a 1-bit the voltage jumps from +12 to -12 V.  After that comes
  the next bit (-12 V if a 1 or +12 V if a 0), etc., etc.  After the
  last data bit a parity bit may be sent and then a -12 V (mark) stop
  bit.  Then the line remains at -12 V (idle) until the next start bit.
  Note that there is no return to 0 volts and thus there is no simple
  way (except by a synchronizing signal) to tell where one bit ends and
  the next one begins for the case where 2 consecutive bits are the same
  polarity (both zero or both one).

  A 2nd stop bit would also be -12 V, just the same as the first stop
  bit.  Since there is no signal to mark the boundaries between these
  bits, the only effect of the 2nd stop bit is that the line must remain
  at -12 V idle twice as long.  The receiver has no way of detecting the
  difference between a 2nd stop bit and a longer idle time between
  bytes.  Thus communications works OK if one end uses one stop bit and
  the other end uses 2 stop bits, but using only one stop bit is
  obviously faster.  In rare cases 1 1/2 stop bits are used.  This means
  that the line is kept at -12 V for 1 1/2 time periods (like a stop bit
  50% wider than normal).


  16.3.  Parity Explained

  Characters are normally transmitted with either 7 or 8 bits of data.
  An additional parity bit may (or may not) be appended to this
  resulting in a byte length of 7, 8 or 9 bits.  Some terminal emulators
  and older terminals do not allow 9 bits.  Some prohibit 9 bits if 2
  stop bits are used (since this would make the total number of bits too
  large: 12 bits total after adding the start bit).

  The parity may be set to odd, even or none (mark and space parity may
  be options on some terminals).  With odd parity, the parity bit is
  selected so that the number of 1-bits in a byte, including the parity
  bit, is odd.  If a such a byte gets corrupted by a bit being flipped,
  the result is an illegal byte of even parity.  This error will be
  detected and if it's an incoming byte to the terminal an error-
  character symbol will appear on the screen.  Even parity works in a
  similar manner with all legal bytes (including the parity bit) having
  an even number of 1-bits.  During set-up, the number of bits per
  character usually means only the number of data bits per byte (7 for
  true ASCII and 8 for various ISO character sets).

  A "mark" is a 1-bit (or logic 1) and a "space" is a 0-bit (or logic
  0).  For mark parity, the parity bit is always a one-bit.  For space
  parity it's always a zero-bit.  Mark or space parity only wastes
  bandwidth and should be avoided if feasible.  "No parity" means that
  no parity bit is added.   For terminals that don't permit 9 bit bytes,
  "no parity" must be selected when using 8 bit character sets since
  there is no room for a parity bit.


  16.4.  Forming a Byte (Framing)

  In serial transmission of bytes via EIA-232 ports, the low-order bit
  is always sent first.  Serial ports on PC's use asynchronous
  communication where there is a start bit and a stop bit to mark the
  beginning and end of a byte.  This is called framing and the framed
  byte is sometimes called a frame.  As a result a total of 9, 10, or 11
  bits are sent per byte with 10 being the most common.   8-N-1 means 8
  data bits, No parity, 1 stop bit.  This adds up to 10 bits total when
  one counts the start bit.  One stop bit is almost universally used.
  At 110 bits/sec (and sometimes at 300 bits/sec) 2 stop bits were once
  used but today the 2nd stop bit is used only in very unusual
  situations (or by mistake since it still works OK that way but wastes
  bandwidth).


  16.5.  How "Asynchronous" is Synchronized

  The EIA-232 serial port as implemented on PC is asynchronous which in
  effect means that there is no "clock" signal sent with "ticks" to mark
  when each bit is sent..  There are only two states of the transmit (or
  receive) wire: mark (-12 V) or space (+12 V).  There is no state of 0
  V.  Thus a sequence of 1-bits is transmitted by just a steady -12 V
  with no markers of any kind between bits.  For the receiver to detect
  individual bits it must always have a clock signal which is in
  synchronization with the transmitter clock.  Such a clock would
  generate a "tick" in synchronization with each transmitted (or
  received) bit.

  For asynchronous transmission, synchronization is achieved by framing
  each byte with a start bit and a stop bit (done by hardware).  The
  receiver listens on the negative line for a positive start bit and
  when it detects one it starts its clock ticking.  It uses this clock
  tick to time the reading of the next 7, 8 or 9 bits.  (It actually is
  a little more complex than this since several samples of a bit are
  normally taken and this requires additional timing ticks.)  Then the
  stop bit is read, the clock stops and the receiver waits for the next
  start bit.  Thus async is actually synchronized during the reception
  of a single byte but there is no synchronization between one byte and
  the next byte.


  17.  Other Serial Devices (not async EIA-232)

  17.1.  Successors to EIA-232

  A number of EIA standards have been established for higher speeds and
  longer distances using twisted-pair (balanced) technology.  Balanced
  transmission can sometimes be a hundred times faster than unbalanced
  EIA-232.  For a given speed, the distance (maximum cable length) may
  be many times longer with twisted pair.  But PC-s keep being made with
  the "obsolete" EIA-232 since it works OK with modems and mice since
  the cable length is short.  If this appears in the latest version of
  this HOWTO, please let me know if any of the non-EIA-232 listed below
  are supported by Linux.


  17.2.  EIA-422-A (balanced) and EIA-423-A (unbalanced)

  EIA-423 is just like the unbalanced EIA-232 except that the voltage is
  only 5 volts.  Since this falls within EIA-232 specs it can be
  connected to a EIA-232 port.  Its specs call for somewhat higher
  speeds than the EIA-232 (but this may be of little help on a long run
  where it's the unbalance that causes interference).

  Apple's Mac computer prior to mid-1998 with its EIA-232/EIA-422 Port
  provided twisted-pairs (balanced) for transmit and receive (when used
  as a 422).  It is (per specs) exactly 100 times as fast as EIA-423
  (which in turn is somewhat faster than EIA-232)  The Mac used a small
  round "mini-DIN-8" connector.  It also provided conventional EIA-232
  but at only at 5 volts (which is still legal EIA-232).  To make it
  work like at EIA-232 one must use a special cable which (signal)
  grounds RxD+ (one side of a balanced pair) and use RxD- as the receive
  pin.  While TxD- is used as the transmit pin, for some reason TxD+
  should not be grounded.  See Macintosh Communications FAQ
  <http://www.modemshop.com/csm-comm-faq.html>.  However, due to the
  fact that Macs (and upgrades for them) cost more than PC's, they are
  not widely as host computers for Linux.


  17.3.  EIA-485

  This is like EIA-422 (balanced).  It is half-duplex.  It's not just
  point-to-point but may be used for a multidrop LAN (up to 32 nodes).
  There are no connector specs


  17.4.  EIA-530

  EIA-530-A (balanced but can also be used unbalanced) at 2Mbits/s
  (balanced) was intended to be a replacement for EIA-232 but few have
  been installed.  It uses the same 25-pin connector as EIA-232.


  17.5.  EIA-612/613

  The High Speed Serial Interface ( HSSI = EIA-612/613) uses a 50-pin
  connector and goes up to about 50 Mbits/s but the distance is limited
  to only several meters.  For Linux there are PCI cards supporting
  HSSI.  The companies that sell the cards often provide (or point you
  to) a Linux driver.  A mini-howto or the like is needed for this
  topic.


  17.6.  The Universal Serial Bus (USB)

  The Universal Serial Bus (USB) is being built into PCI chips.  New
  PC's have them.  It is 12 Mbits/s over a twisted pair with a 4-pin
  connector (2 wires are power supply) but it also is limited to short
  distances of at most 5 meters (depends on configuration).

  Another HOWTO is needed for it.  Work is underway for supporting it in
  Linux (but no HOWTO).  It is synchronous and transmits in special
  packets like a network.  Just like a network, it can have several
  devices attached to it.  Each device on it gets a time-slice of
  exclusive use for a short time.  A device can also be guaranteed the
  use of the bus at fixed intervals.  One device can monopolize it if no
  other device wants to use it.  It's not simple to describe in detail.


  17.7.  Synchronization & Synchronous

  Beside the asynchronous EIA-232 (and others) there are a number of
  synchronous serial port standards.  In fact EIA-232 includes
  synchronous specifications but they aren't normally implemented for
  serial ports on PC's.  But first we'll explain what a synchronous
  means.


  17.7.1.  Defining Asynchronous vs Synchronous

  Asynchronous (async) means "not synchronous".  In practice, an async
  signal is what the async serial port sends and receives which is a
  stream of bytes each delimited by a start and stop bit.  Synchronous
  (sync) is most everything else.  But this doesn't explain the basic
  concepts.

  In theory, synchronous means that bytes are sent out at a constant
  rate one after another in step with a clock signal tick.  There is
  often a separate wire or channel for sending the clock signal.
  Asynchronous bytes may be sent out erratically with various time
  intervals between bytes (like someone typing characters at a
  keyboard).

  There are certain situations that need to be classified as either sync
  or async.  The async serial port often sends out bytes in a steady
  stream which would make this a synchronous case but since they still
  have the start/stop bits (which makes it possible to send them out
  erratically) it's called async.  Another case is where data bytes
  (without any start-stop bits) are put into packets with possible
  erratic spacing between one packet and the next.  This is called sync
  since the bytes within each packet must be transmitted synchronously.


  17.7.2.  Synchronous Communication

  Did you ever wonder what all the unused pins are for on a 25-pin
  connector for the serial port?  Most of them are for use in
  synchronous communication which is seldom implemented on PC's.  There
  are pins for sync timing signals as well as for a sync reverse
  channel.  The EIA-232 spec provides for both sync and async but PC's
  use a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter) chip such as
  a 16450, 16550A, or 16650 and can't deal with sync.  For sync one
  needs a USART chip or the equivalent where the "S" stands for
  Synchronous.  Since sync is a niche market, a sync serial port is
  likely to be quite expensive.

  Besides the sync part of the EIA-232, there are various other EIA
  synchronous standards.  For EIA-232, 3 pins of the connector are
  reserved for clock (or timing) signals.  Sometimes it's a modem's task
  to generate some timing signals making it impossible to use
  synchronous communications without a synchronous modem (or without a
  device called a "synchronous modem eliminator" which provides the
  timing signals).
  Although few serial ports are sync, synchronous communication does
  often take place over telephone lines using modems which use V.42
  error correction.  This strips off the start/stop bits and puts the
  date bytes in packets resulting in synchronous operation over the
  phone line.


  18.  Other Sources of Information

  18.1.  Books



  1. Axleson, Jan: Serial Port Complete, Lakeview Research, Madison, WI,
     1998.

  2. Black, Uyless D.: Physical Layer Interfaces & Protocols, IEEE
     Computer Society Press, Los Alamitos, CA, 1996.

  3. Campbell, Joe: The RS-232 Solution, 2nd ed., Sybex, 1982.

  4. Levine, Donald:   POSIX Programmer's Guide
     <http://www.ora.com/catalog/posix/>, (ISBN 0-937175-73-0; O'Reilly)

  5. Putnam, Byron W.: RS-232 Simplified, Prentice Hall, 1987.

  6. Seyer, Martin D.: RS-232 Made Easy, 2nd ed., Prentice Hall, 1991.

  7. Stevens, Richard W.: Advanced Programming in the UNIX Environment
     <http://heg-
     school.aw.com/cseng/authors/stevens/advanced/advanced.nclk>, (ISBN
     0-201-56317-7; Addison-Wesley)

  8. Tischert, Michael & Bruno Jennrich: PC Intern, Abacus 1996.
     Chapter 7: Serial Ports

  Notes re books:

  1. "... Complete" has hardware details (including register) but the
     programming aspect is Window oriented.

  2. "Physical Layer ..." covers much more than just EIA-232.


  18.2.  Serial Software

  It's best to use the nearest mirror site, but here's the main sites:
  Serial Software <ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/serial/> for
  Linux software for the serial ports including getty and port monitors.
  Serial Communications
  <ftp://metalab.unc.edu/pub/Linux/apps/serialcomm> for communication
  programs.


  o  irqtune will give serial port interrupts higher priority to improve
     performance.  Using hdparm for hard-disk tuning may help some more.

  o  modemstat and statserial show the current state of various modem
     control lines.  See ``Serial Monitoring/Diagnostics''


  18.3.  Linux Documents


  o  man pages for: setserial(8) stty

  o  libc (or glibc) docs package: "Low Level Terminal Interface"

  o  Modem-HOWTO: modems on the serial port

  o  PPP-HOWTO: help with PPP (using a modem on the serial port)

  o  Printing-HOWTO: for setting up a serial printer

  o  Serial-Programming-HOWTO: for some aspects of serial-port
     programming

  o  Text-Terminal-HOWTO: how they work and how to install and configure

  o  UPS-HOWTO: setting up UPS sensors connected to your serial port

  o  UUCP-HOWTO: for information on setting up UUCP


  18.4.  Usenet newsgroups:


  o  comp.os.linux.answers

  o  comp.os.linux.hardware:  Hardware compatibility with the Linux
     operating system.

  o  comp.os.linux.networking:  Networking and communications under
     Linux.

  o  comp.os.linux.setup:  Linux installation and system administration.


  18.5.  Serial Mailing List

  The Linux serial mailing list.  To join, send email to
  majordomo@vger.rutgers.edu, with ``subscribe linux-serial'' in the
  message body.  If you send ``help'' in the message body, you get a
  help message.  The server also serves many other Linux lists.  Send
  the ``lists'' command for a list of mailing lists.


  18.6.  Internet



  o  Serial  Suite <ftp://scicom.alphacdc.com/pub/linux> by Vern Hoxie
     is a collection of blurbs about the care and feeding of the Linux
     serial port plus some simple programs.  When logging into 'scicom'
     as "anonymous", you must use your full e-mail address as the
     password.  For example: greg.hankins@cc.gatech.edu

  o  A white paper discussing serial communications and multiport serial
     boards was available from Cyclades at http://www.cyclades.com.

     END OF Serial-HOWTO











